In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen’s usage of letters...

In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen’s usage of letters allows the reader to fully comprehend the situation and certain feelings of the characters. The Usage of Jane’s Letters in Pride and Prejudice In Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen’s usage of letters allows the reader to fully comprehend the situation and certain feelings of the characters. For example, the two letters sent by Jane Bennet to Elizabeth Bennet in Chapter 46 allow the novel to arrive at a turning point in many different aspects. The obvious purpose of the written letters is to inform the reader of the events at hand regarding Lydia Bennet and Mr. Wickham. However, these letters allow changes to take place in other relationships as well. Jane Bennet†¦show more content†¦Wickham as well as Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy. However the seriousness of the situation in itself, the relationship between Mr. Darcy and Elizabeth Bennet is furthermore developed because of these two letters. Elizabeth turns to Mr. Darcy as soon as he appears and immediately notifies him of everything. This action of hers illustrates the budding closeness between the two and how she relies on Darcy. Both Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy blame themselves for not exposing Mr. Wickham as the vagrant that he truly is. Therefore, this shared guilt provides the nascent couple with a strong emotional connection and a universal principle. A major factor of a couple’s relationship is how they react in times of distress. Do they turn to each other for support or withdraw from one another? Elizabeth’s reliance on Mr. Darcy is a foreshadowing of a wonderful relationship to come for the couple. The two letters alone are a catalyst in exposing these emotions that might otherwise be suppressed. The two letters will generally contribute to furthering the development of Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy’s relationship. Perhaps the reasoning behind Lydia’s actions could be her family and their attitudes toward certain subjects such as men, romance, and marriage. Mrs. Bennet is consistently pressuring her daughters to become married women in order to ensure social status and financial security for the remainder of their lives. It seems that her only goal in life isShow MoreRelatedEssay about A Sense of Place in Austens Pride and Prejudice1450 Words   |  6 PagesA Sense of Place in Austens Pride and Prejudice It is interesting to observe Dictionary.coms definition of the word place in relation to person. Especially when it comes to Pride and Prejudice, where Austen has made great use of the objective correlative technique, in which many, if not all, of her settings considerably reflect the characteristics of their owners. She additionally employs several other techniques regarding the sense of place in her novel, which are important not

The War Against Underage Drinking Essay - 2488 Words

A serious epidemic is overtaking this country. Underage drinking is spreading like a virus. It is not just teenagers in college that are drinking; there are numerous kids in high school, middle school, and even elementary school! How have we let it get this far? There is no excuse to be oblivious anymore. Underage drinking is right in front of our faces. It is killing our children. The good news is that this is a problem that can be fixed. There is no way of completely eliminating underage drinking, but it can be greatly reduced. With efforts from the government, parents, and the media, we can diminish underage drinking a great deal. We need to start educating our children that alcohol is a dangerous drug. We need to start setting better†¦show more content†¦But they are not smart enough to see what alcohol can do to their brain and their decisions. There is a reason why we have the law set at age twenty one. A human?s brain is not done developing until the age of twenty-o ne. Drinking before this age can contribute to alcohol-induced brain damage which can hinder a teenager?s performance in academics (Alcohol Alert). There is also a risk that teenagers that drink are four times more likely to develop an alcohol dependency sometime in their lives. Risks in sexual assault also plague underage drinkers. Sexual assault is already more prevalent during adolescent ages. By introducing alcohol, sexual assault cases are much more likely to happen. It has also been shown that when alcohol is involved, the more likely sex will result in unwanted pregnancies and STD?s. There is also a much higher risk of suicide. In one study, thirty seven percent of females that drank heavily had reported attempting suicide compared to only eleven percent that did not report drinking (Armstrong, Elizabeth). ?Smart? college students will even tell you that alcohol affects them. According to Hank Nuwer in Wrongs of Passage, four out of every five students in the collegiate Greek system are binge drinkers. These drinkers will tell you that this has caused them to engage in risky sexual behaviors, act irresponsibly, and hurt their academic standings. From elementary schoolers to college students, alcohol has detrimental effectsShow MoreRelatedDrinking Age Should Be Lowered937 Words   |  4 PagesDrinking Age should be lowered from twenty one to eighteen There is no taboo subject in America quote like underage drinking. The principal problem is not the age of drinking, but the hidden binge side of it. When it comes to the law, there is always an opinion. A reform should be made about the age of drinking for numerous reasons in my personal viewpoint. In the U.S, at the age of eighteen, one can legally vote, buy cigarettes, and join the army, to cite a few things. Going against the law, criticsRead MorePersuasive Essay On Underage Drinking1291 Words   |  6 PagesUnderage drinking is one of the largest problems that we have in the United States. This is a problem because alcohol is an item that nobody under twenty-one years of age is allowed to purchase or consume. People who are underage are punished by law when they consume or attempt to purchase alcohol illegally. This makes people under twenty-one want alcohol even more. In other countries where the drinking age is lower, there are less problems because it gives parents the push to teach their childrenRead MoreThe Minimum Drinking Age Act Of 19841407 Words   |  6 Pagesthe United States Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984. Signed by President Ronald Regan, which requires that states prohibit people under the age of 21 from purchasing or publicly process alcoholic beverages as a condition of receiving State highway funds. Initially intended as a comprehensive approach to reduce the number of alcohol related deaths on the nations highways. Not prohibiting a person under 21 from drinking under certain exceptions some such as religious purposesRead MoreThe Consequences Of Underage Drinking1745 Words   |  7 PagesConsequences of Underage Drinking While alcohol may not be the most dangerous of drugs, it is harmful nonetheless. There have been many research studies done by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism that prove this to be true. Binge drinking is drinking with the purpose of getting drunk, and is the most common form of alcohol consumption while it is also the most dangerous. There have been numerous researches by other organizations and scientists that have demonstrated just how dangerousRead More Lowering the Drinking Age Appears to be Best Solution Essay1627 Words   |  7 PagesLowering the Drinking Age Appears to be Best Solution Despite offering many solutions to the ongoing problem of underage drinking, there seems to be no chance for a law to pass that will lower the drinking age. Pete Coors of Coors Brewing Co. ran for senator in the Colorado election and campaigned that he was not pushing to lower the drinking age, however many of his quotes are not consistent with this point of view. No matter what the ultimate decision is for the drinking age, fake IDs and parentsRead MoreMinimum Legal Drinking Age Should Remain at the Age of 21 Essay1310 Words   |  6 PagesWithout a doubt, the United States has been facing serious national problems with underage drinking. Depending on personal ideologies, some people might not agree that the current minimum drinking age of twenty-one is based on scientific facts rather then ideology of prohibitionism. For example, since 1975 over seventeen thousand lives have been saved since the minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) was changed to age twenty-one (Balkin 167). This s hows that even over a short amount of time, a higherRead MoreDrinking Age Essay677 Words   |  3 PagesDrinking Age When teen-agers turn 18, they are told that they are adults and are sent into the world. They go to college, get a job, marry or join the military. They do grown-up things like vote, pay taxes and become parents. But they cant go to the pub for a beer because when it comes to liquor, they are still just kids. Wheres the fairness in the 21-and-older drinking law? First, it is necessary to question this law. Why is 21 the magical age that makes one intelligent and matureRead MoreThe Debate Over The Drinking Age1025 Words   |  5 PagesI have always wondered why the drinking age was raised to twenty-one. I have looked and researched the following information but still don’t have a true explanation as to why it was raised to the age of twenty-one. The movement called Amethyst Initiative began recruiting university presidents to provoke national debate about the drinking age. College Presidents from about 100 of the nation’s universities, are calling on law makers to consider lowering the drinking age from twenty-one to eighteenRead MoreEssay about Keeping the Drinking Age at 211662 Words   |  7 PagesWhen it comes to the subject of drinking and teenagers, what is the first thing that comes to mind? To me its the legal age limit of when teens should be able to drink. Having it lowered is controversial because according to prior experiences, data shows that younger age drinking is well known for its fatalities. According to Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), on one of the most popular prom nights in 1999, as many as 62 percent of the traffic deaths were alcohol-related (). The most importantRead MoreThe Legal Drinking Age Should Be Lowered From The Age Of 21 Essay980 Words   |  4 Pagesconsidered â€Å"adults† cannot even make their own decisions? The drinking age on alcohol is a controversial social and cultural issue in today’s society; all fifty states have a minimum drinking age of 21. The legal drinking age should be lowered from the age of 21 to 18 allowing young adults to be granted the right to drink in restaurants, bars, at social events, in the comfort of their own home, and so on. If anything, lowering the legal drinking age would have a positive impact on the United Sates economy

OpenBTS Free Essays

OpenBTS: A Way of Providing Internet Access to Developing CountriesAbstract The mobile network infrastructure of the twenty-first century is monolithic. It de facto closed and complex systems have few suppliers. They are mostly pre-internet protocol run, and their architectural concept keeps evolving. We will write a custom essay sample on OpenBTS or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, this evolution has not resulted in them being economical or flexible. Thus OpenBTS brings the empowerment that is needed to build and operate cellular networks. Given that the technologies and capabilities are necessary to make such systems is readily available. This paper will look at the OpenBTS. What it means, how it works, components needed to create it, how these components function about each other. Also, the paper will look at the cost involved in setting up OpenBTS and how viable it is in the developing nations.? OpenBTS: A Way of Providing Internet Access to Developing CountriesOpen Base Transceiver Station simply is known as OpenBTS is a GSM access point that is software based. It allows the use of mobile phones that are GSM compatible with voice over the internet protocol. The software is categorized as open source by its developers Range Networks. Its public release as an open source software revolutionized the lower three layers of the GSM protocol stack (Iedema, 22). The OpenBTS is abbreviated by the C++, as free software, its controlled by the GNU Affero General Public License terms and conditions. How the OpenBTS works. OpenBTS operates by replacing the third layer of conventional GSM operational infrastructure. As opposed to GSM system that forwards calls through the radio resource management protocol via base stations that are external, OpenBTS has internal units that perform this function. OpenBTS uses SIP to deliver calls to VOIP soft switch and therefore bypasses the need to route the call to the operator’s mobile switching center Burgess (David ; Samra, 13). The VIOP software is installed, and the OpenBTS are installed in one computer to form a cellular network that delivers calls to VOIP soft switch and therefore bypasses the need to route the call to the operator’s mobile switching center. The VIOP software is installed, and the OpenBTS are installed in one computer to form a cellular network that is self-sufficient. However, it also possible to configure several OpenBTS units to share a common VOIP switch to form a network.Other components of GSMGSM components can be divided into four areas. These are the MS (Mobile Station), BSS (Base-Station Subsystem, NSS (Network and Switching Subsystem) and OSS (Operation and Support Subsystem. These four elements within the GSM network operate together as one unit, and therefore users never realize the difference that exists in the System (Iedema, 32). The components would take the below shape regarding a diagram representation.The MS or mobile stations also known as the cell or mobile phones and is the part of the GSM network that is seen and operated by the users. Technological innovation has improved the size and functionality of this part of the network over the years. The mobile station has two elements that help it carry out its functions. These are the Hardware, and the Subscriber Identity Module often referred to as the SIM (David Samra, 13). The SIM contains the user’s information that the network uses to identify them and the IMSI which is the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI). The hardware contains the devices that are used to generate data and transmit it. It also contains the International Mobile Equipment Identity which is an international identification used to trace stolen phones. The BSS or Base Station Subsystem has two sections, the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) and the Base Station Controller (BSC). The BTS communicates with the mobile through an Um interface and associated protocols (Iedema, 24). The BTC provides radio resources that communicate with and control through an Abis interface. The NSS or Networking Switching Subsystem is the core element of the GSM network, and it contains several elements. These elements are Mobile Services Switching Centre which acts as the switching node and enables functions such as registration, authentication, and call location among other functions to be performed. The Home Location Register element contains the administrative information used to register the user to the network and direct calls appropriately. The Visitor Location Register contains information that allows individual users to access the services that they request. The Equipment Identity Register, checks for the International Mobile Equipment Identity to verify if the particular equipment is allowed to accesses the services. Authentication Center provides the link between the SIM card and the network through a key that helps in radio connection. The Gateway Mobile Switching Center is responsible for obtaining Mobile Station Roaming Number that helps in call termination.The other element of the GSM network is the OSS (Operation and Support Subsystem). It’s the component that connects the NSS and BSC. The GSM network is controlled and monitored by this element. It also used to monitor traffic load that goes through the BSS. The connection between OpenBTS and other GSM network components OpenBTS can be connected to GSM through software or hardware. The software elements are the GNU Radio and the Asterisk. This is a software suite that has several modules that are combined with minimal hardware and used in implementing radio systems in personal computers. It’s an interface that is graphical with blocks that represent stages through which data flows. This graphical representation is achieved through the use of Python programming language (David ;Samra, 13). The asterisk is the communication server that provides the capability that enables BTS to route calls accurately, perform correct registration and authentication processes in the GSM networks. The asterisk enables the network to read the Subscriber Identity Modules as the SIP user, and their International Mobile Subscriber Identity as the SIP username. This is achieved by connecting the Asterisk PBX to the OpenBTS. The other way of connecting OpenBTS to GSM network is through the use of hardware such Motherboard Ettus Research Universal Software Radio Peripheral. Also, daughterboards RFX900 with VERT900 antennas and GSM terminals equipped with SIM cards is required. The connection is made through motherboard that can accommodate several daughterboards (David ; Samra, 13). The interface between the motherboard and the daughterboards is provided by USB cable that can transmit Radio frequency bandwidth.Cost of OpenBTS and other components Compared to the traditional cell networks, OpenBTS is low in cost as most of the components needed are easily available. The software and the equipment used to create an OpenBTS through GSM network are readily available in stores and online (Heimerl et al., 3). This has made OpenBTS cost effective as compared to the traditional landline network or the other cellular networks such satellite. The only challenge that OpenBTS faces are the availability of power in rural areas that are of the grid. The use of other sources of power could prove to be expensive and drive the cost of the network high especially in a developing country where income levels are low.Feasibility of OpenBTS in the rural areaThe feasibility of OpenBTS in providing internet access in the rural and remote area is great. Through the use of simple and easily available material, networks that can cover a radius of up to 15miles is easily created (Heimerl et al., 3). This would drastically improve the coverage area of these of grid areas that would otherwise be impossible to reach. Various advantages would come with Using OpenBTS to provide internet to the rural area. The cost of OpenBTS is low compared to other forms of such as satellite or landline. The equipment and technology required to build OpenBTS are affordable and readily available. However, there are also the cons of OpenBTS (David ; Samra, 13). Several regulations hinder the development and use of this technology. The process of getting approval to develop OpenBTS network can be tiresome in some countries. Also, the radius covered by OpenBTS network can be relatively small requiring the creation of multiple networks to cover wide areas. OpenBTS in Indonesia In Indonesia, the OpenBTS is provided by an American startup Endaga. The company operates the module through the Village Base Station which is mounted on the small box and mounted on metallic poles (Heimerl ; Brewer, 3). The equipment is powered by solar panels that are mounted on the same pole. The box is further fit with management software that performs billing and analytics functions. These stations combine the function of a traditional GSM equipment and programmable computer allowing them to provide more value. They provide both voice and data capabilities to the rural villages. After experiencing success with this innovation in two primary towns, Endaga is preparing to expand to other locations within the country and the continent. Conclusion For the two first century to truly be a century of technological advance, there must be an equal distribution of internet services. Both the rural and urban areas must be covered effectively by internet services. There has been concentration on the urban areas with the number of services providers in these areas going up. However, the rural and poor areas have been given little attention or at times completely neglected. Most developing countries in Africa and Asia lack essential internet connectivity. In the areas where the services are available, they are still expensive for many who are poor. The OpenBTS promises to solve the two-fold problem that many remote and poor areas are facing. Since it allows for firms to provide for cheap internet services, it will eliminate the problem of affordability. Also, it will also offer off-grid areas that lack power. Through innovation like the one that has been exhibited by Endaga, it is now possible to provide internet services in any area. It is now upon the various governments of the developing nations to ensure that right policies that will facilitate the development of the concept is in place. How to cite OpenBTS, Papers

Caborn geography Essay Example For Students

Caborn geography Essay CabornThe topographic map that is the study area is the Caborn quadrangle. This area is located in the southwest area of Indiana and on the south is bordering the Ohio River. The topography of this area is pocketed with gently rolling hills with the largest depression in the land just north of the Ohio River with Goose pond located in the center of it. This study area is located in the Wabash lowland of Indiana and its bedrock consists of mainly of shale and sandstone. There is also a thin layer of bedrock consisting of limestone, clay and coal. There are three major routes of transportation through this area which are the Ohio River, the railroad, and highway 62. The Ohio River in the southern area of the study region is one of the main transportation routes. The Southwind Maritime Center is a river port located on the Ohio River and is located on the west side of the map. This port is a state-of-the-art river port with advanced material handling technologies. The port is specifically designed to handle in or out bound container cargo. The port is also a designated Foreign Trade Zone providing advantages to companies in this area involved in international trade. This Port is more than 740 acres and is home to a wide variety of companies. The Southwind Maritime Center is also easily accessible by railroad and a four-lane freeway as shown on map where they are located just north of the port. The railroad as shown on the map runs from the northeastern corner to the mid-west side. Highway 62 runs from the east to west along the middle of the map. The highway and railroad provide transportation routes back and forth between Mount Vernon and Evansville. The Caborn quadrangle is located in Posey County, Indiana. There are 491 farms in Posey County. Eighty-five percent of the total land in this county is farmland according to Bureau of the Census in 1992. According to the Bureau of Labor statistics about forty percent of the work force in Posey County works some sort of manufacturing job and this shows the importance of Southwind Maritime center to this region. The study area has a humid, continental climate with warm summers and cool winters. The average temperatures for this region vary from 37 F in the winter to 80 F in the summer. The growing season is approximately 180 to 210 days with the average annual rainfall of 45 inches. The forests of this region consists of deciduous trees, mainly oak, hickory, maple and ash.The study area is in the southern region of the Corn Belt and the major cash crop being c orn.BibliographyCarbon Quadrangle. Map. U.S.G.S., 1975Atlas of American Agriculture. Washington, United States Govt. print. off., 1936. U.S. Bureau of the Census, USA Counties. 1996 CD-ROM1995 County Business Patterns for Posey, INIndiana Geological Surveyhttp://www.indiana.edu/igs/

Ecology Exam 1 Essay Example

Ecology Exam 1

Composite Numbers What Are They How Can You Spot Them

Composite Numbers What Are They How Can You Spot Them SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Do you know the difference between prime and composite numbers? If not, don’t worry! You’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll talk about what prime and composite numbers are and give you a handy chart you can use to quickly see if something is a composite number. What Is a Composite Number? Composite numbers are whole numbers that are greater than 1 and divisible by other whole numbers. Here are the questions to ask yourself to decide if a number is composite: Is the number a whole number? Is the number greater than 1? Is the number divisible by whole numbers other than itself? Let’s apply those questions to two different numbers to see if they are composite or not. Take the number â€Å"4†. 4 is a whole number. It is greater than 1. You can divide 4 by 4. You can also divide 4 by 2, so it’s divisible by other whole numbers. That means 4 is a composite number. Let’s look at the number â€Å"3†. 3 is a whole number. It’s greater than 1. You can divide 3 by 3. But, you can’t divide 3 by any other whole numbers. That means 3 isn’t a composite number. How to Tell the Difference Between Prime and Composite Numbers If a number isn’t composite, then it’s prime. Prime numbers are numbers that are greater than 1 that are only divisible by themselves and the number 1. The best way to tell if a number is prime or composite is to perform the divisibility test. When you use the divisibility test, you check to see if a number is divisible by common prime factors, like 2, 3, 5, 7, ,and 13. If you’re testing an even number, start by trying to divide it by 2 to see if it’s composite. If you’re testing a number that ends with 0 or 5, try to divide it by 5. If you get a whole number when dividing by any of these common factors, then your number is composite. If you get a fraction or decimal when dividing by these common factors, then your number is likely prime. Composite Number Chart (1-100) Here is a handy composite number list to reference. All of the numbers in blue are composite numbers. Prime Number Chart (1-100) Here’s an easy-to-reference prime number list. All of the numbers in red are prime numbers. Final Thoughts It’s important to know whether a number is prime or composite so you can understand whether or not the number is divisible. Remember, ask yourself these questions to tell if a number is a composite number or not: Is the number a whole number? Is the number greater than 1? Is the number divisible by whole numbers other than itself? What’s Next? Writing a research paper for school but not sure what to write about?Our guide to research paper topicshas over 100 topics in ten categories so you can be sure to find the perfect topic for you. Learning about natural logs?Check out our guide on the natural log rules you must knowto ace this subject. What is dynamic equilibrium and what does it have to do with rusty cars?Find out by reading ourcomplete guide to dynamic equilibrium.

UNIT 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

UNIT 5 - Essay Example When management carries out its duties effectively by attaining desired results, then that defines doing things the right way. On the other hand, when management does things efficiently, that is accomplishing set goals in the required way, then that is doing the right thing. Setting measurable goals such as budgets and production levels gives the manager a chance to analyze reasons for missing certain goals. Reasonable and measurable goals help managers to expose reasons that results into struggles of working staff. In addition, measurable goals help in preventing miscommunication among members of the organization. Without measurable goals, employees morale decreases because staff members feel that they work without direction. It, therefore, is through setting up of measurable goals that employees prove to their managers their worth and goals. Every project goal has its critical dimensions. Three of these critical dimensions include cost, scope and schedule of the project in question. For any project, the manager must put into consideration cost of materials that the entire project may require. Secondly, the required release date of the project makes it necessary for a manager to treat schedule with significance (Sanzo et al.,  2012). Finally, project managers also need to take care of the project scope. Project scope involves performance requirements and any other set features in the project goal. The most common types of project manager’s charts are the PERT Chart and Gantt chart. Both PERT and Gantt charts help managers to plan their projects in a manner that enables the project team to visualize the project as a whole or in part (Bowen, 2014). However, PERT and Gantt display varied contrasts. Gantt charts describe tasks dependencies, onset and ending times for project tasks while PERT charts describe parallel activities and that are sequential. Gantt charts mainly depict simple related tasks whereas PERT charts focus on

COSTS OF PRODUCTION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

COSTS OF PRODUCTION - Essay Example To understand the concept indivisibility of some factor inputs, we can look at some examples from the Tropical Smoothie cafà ©. Some of the indivisible inputs include the business idea, entrepreneurial skills, and the skills of individual workers among others. In this  case, it is  clear that not all inputs all divisible. Therefore, the indivisible inputs should be utilized efficiently to avoid wastage. There exist several characteristics or features of a competitive market structure. For instance, there are no barriers to entry in the market. In this regard, firms are free to penetrate or exit the market on their own pleasure. As a result, there are many small firms that serve the entire market such that no firm has sufficient power to control the market (Dwivedi, 2006). Therefore, the price of commodities in such a market are determined by the forces of demand and supply. In essence, the firms have to set prices that are in line with the existing market price. Generally, it can be argued  that the firms in such a market are price takers. Van & Camesasca (2001) state that a perfectively competitive firm offers identical products to that of competitors. In this regard, the consumers can switch from one firm to the other since all products are close substitutes. Actually, the products serve the same customers’ needs and wants and, therefore, firms are forced to devise unique means of surviving the competition. In essence, the homogeneity of products in perfectively competitive markets creates a cut-throat contest among the firms in the competition. Perfectly competitive firms operate with resources that are easily transferable from one industry to another. In essence, the firms are flexible to changes and, therefore, can fit in more than one industry. Studies have shown that most perfectly competitive firms do not operate in one industry for their entire life of

Urban air pollution and the automobile Research Paper

Urban air pollution and the automobile - Research Paper Example The atmosphere of the earth is a thin cover composed of different gases and water vapors and is a great blessing for mankind as it surrounds the whole earth and sustains the human life on this planet. The vertical thickness and density of the atmosphere depends upon different ecosystems. The atmosphere along with its different ecosystems plays a significant role to maintain the overall planet’s temperature and in provision of coal, oil, food crops, and drinking water to human society. Man has exploited endlessly the available resources and has always assumed that they are inexhaustible. Today human has realized that he has been constantly disturbing the ecological balance and fast finishing the life-supporting systems on the earth. Urban pollution is caused by many factors like industrial and thermal power plants, but more importantly by vehicular emissions. As a result, the outdoor air quality in urban areas has deteriorated significantly. Statistics reveals that in last 30 t o 40 years, the concentrations of suspended particulate matter in huge cities like Mexico, New York, Tokyo, Mumbai, Karachi, Seoul, Beijing, Bangkok, and New Delhi etc were four to five times higher than levels recommended by world health organization (Brown, 1999). A substantial increase in the number of vehicles on urban roads continues to drive up levels of urban air pollution. Common gases emitted by vehicles include carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides, and ozone. These all gases are dangerous to human health beyond certain levels of concentration. Poly-aromatic hydrocarbons released by diesel-powered vehicles are known carcinogens, while smoke from diesel engines has aggravated already elevated levels of airborne soot. Nitrous oxides are emerging air pollutants with the highest concentrations recorded in metropolitans. Thesis Statement. People have right to use car, but there are many solution to save our environment; such as, public transportation and government should make rules to use car. The following paragraphs will deal this statement by describing the beneficiary management and role of public transportation, fuel used by different types of cars, and the corrective preventive measures to control the urban pollution produced by automobiles. II. Public Transportation As compared to 100 years ago, no doubt today human being is enjoying much better mode of travelling throughout the world like presently cars, buses, trams, trains, and subways are facilitating millions of human being daily. According to World Resource Institute (2008), all these transportations contribute to almost 25% of the overall global energy consumption while cars are responsible for about 80%. Since automobiles are major cause of emission of greenhouse gases in atmosphere (Fenger et al, 1999), therefore in respect of urban pollution, the use of public transport is very beneficial because per head it produces less greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere than cars. Secondly, the us e of public transportation is cost effective both at individual and national level. Although the use of public transportation is less glamorous, however, it keeps the individual free of searching the parking, fuel, and maintenance of personal vehicle. An integrated and well-planned network of public transportation have shown much better results in reduction of greenhouses gases and other pollutant material into air. For example in United States, there were almost 1.6 cars for every two Americans in 2005 while at the same time 160 Americans were entertained by a single trolleybus. By the advent of trams in Europe, great results have been observed. Trams and trains carry millions of people inside the city on regular basis and thus prevent the society from further automobile pollution which could have been occurred by the use of their passengers. III. Fuel of Vehicles Numbers of fuel options are available now days for the owners to use in their vehicles. However,

Energy Policy For Libya Environmental Sciences Essay

Energy Policy For Libya Environmental Sciences Essay Libya is Africas largest oil producing and exporting country, located in the heart of North Africa, the country is home to 6 million inhabitants distributed over an area covering 1,750,000 Km2. Crude oil is an integral part of the Libyan economy and forms the basis on which the Libyan energy policy is formed, however, with increasing global drive towards more sustainable and renewable energy sources, admits issues of climate change, and global warming, there has been renewed and concerted efforts shown by nations around the world to adopt more sustainable energy sources, this has been highlighted in varied global convections and treaties amongst which are, the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, the 2009 Copenhagen summit to mention but a few. This paper attempts to highlight the place of a developing nation and major oil producer and exporter like Libya in renewed efforts to ensure lower dependence on fossil fuel sources, the countrys current energy policies and the state or extent of renewable en ergy resource in the country admits global CO2 reduction targets of 80% by 2050 to stem human contributions to climate change and global warming from fossil fuels. LIBYAN ENERGY BACKGROUND In Libya, the daily average of solar radiation on a horizontal plane is 7.1 kWh/m2/day within coastal regions, and 8.1 kWh/m2/day in the southern region, with average sun duration of more than 3500 hours per year (Saleh Ibrahim, 1993). The national electric grid consists of high, medium and low voltage networks of about 12,000 km, 12,500 km and 7,000 km power lines respectively with an installed capacity is 5600 MW and a peak Load of 3650 MW (Saleh Ibrahim et al., 1998). However, despite the remarkable energy network for a population of 6 million, energy is mainly concentrated in the major cities as many villages and remote areas are located far away from these networks. The small population and small consumption needs of these areas make their connection to the grid less economically viable. This has led to the use of small diesel generators in these areas contributing albeit minimally to the CO2 emissions. Furthermore the total dependence on fossil fuel sources for the generation o f electricity for the national grid belies the tenets of conventions and treaties on climate change, global warming and sustainable energy development. This however calls for the proper assessment of current energy policies in Libya and the place of renewable energy. Libyan renewable energy resource has the potential to provide clean and reliable energy sources which can be used in many applications in remote areas (electricity, water pumping, etc.) and even contribute to the national grid. Albeit the use of renewable energies has been introduced in a wide range of applications due to its convenience and economic attractiveness, application on a much larger scale in Libya has been hampered by the relative abundance of cheaper crude oil sources. GREEN HOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND CLIMATE CHANGE Carbon emission has witnessed a meteoric rise since the turn of the Industrial age, Industrial processes have churned up 37 percent of amount of carbon in the atmosphere to date (Boden et al, 2009), Since the advent of industrialization, massive use of fossil fuels for energy generation have been recorded, there has been increase in the amount of gaseous waste produced in homes, and from transportation. These Gases collectively result in forming a layer in the earths atmosphere shielding radiated sunlight from the earths surface, depleting earths ozone layer and causing general warming of the earth. The effect of these gases is known as the green house effect, the process of gradual warming of the earth is Global warming and the gases are referred to as green house gases. The gradual increase in the earths overall temperatures has a telling effect on activities and life contained in it. Scientist predict, that rising green house gas levels would result in greater earth warming and invariably melting of the ice caps, increase in ocean mean water levels (20mm by 2020), increased flooding of coastal lands enhanced drought in arid lands (IPCC, 2007) etc, and these are part of the deleterious effect of climate change, which has led to a global outcry for the reduction in the emission of gases that give rise to this effect and the setting of CO2 reduction target of 80% by the year 2050. The earth is said to have warmed up by 0.740C over the last hundred years and about 0.40C of this occurred in the last decade (DEFRA, 2006). Agreements, declarations and treaties have been made in summits top on the list of which is the Copenhagen Summit of 2009 borne to develop and exploit means for carbon capture and storage, The Rio declaration of 1992 was to outline support for protection of the environment from the deleterious activities of man, while the Kyoto protocol of 1997, outlined the six major green house gases and set targets for governments to cut down on the production of these gases as waste. Human Drivers Greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere by various mechanisms, chief amongst them is the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas. Over the past fifty years, growth of the world economy has been hinged on worldwide energy use this has resulted in increase in global concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the air. The Kyoto Protocol highlighted anthropogenic emissions as a major cause and as an addendum listed six greenhouse gases. The KYOTO Protocol In 1997, the United Nations having evaluated the potential threat of global warming and the attendant causes (anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases) proceeded to outlined the six major greenhouse gases and set targets (of 80% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050) for national governments to cut down on the generation of these gases as waste or emit them as pollutants. The summit held in Kyoto Japan, entered into force in 2005. The Protocol which shared the ultimate objective of the Convention in Kyoto, Japan was to ensure that nations take steps to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases ensuring that they do not exceed levels that will enhance dangerous interference with the already delicate climate system. The convention also attempted to build upon with a view to enhancing many of the commitments that were already in place under the Convention (UNFCCC 2007). Albeit the Kyoto Protocol was influenced by political factors, its ratification by most countries may be justified in light of the peculiar features of the global warming debacle, the existence of uncertainties, non-linearities and irreversibilities, possible catastrophes with small probabilities, asymmetric distribution of impacts, and the very long planning horizon (IPCC, 1996). The scientific uncertainties enshrouding the climate change and global warming still remain a rallying point for critics. The Kyoto Protocol tackles emissions of six greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2); methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O); hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); perfluorocarbons (PFCs); Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). CURRENT LIBYAN ENERGY CLIME The Libyan economy has been heavily dependent on the hydrocarbon industry since the discovery of crude oil. In 2008, the hydrocarbon industry in Libya accounted for over 95% of the countrys export earnings, 85-90% of fiscal revenues and over 70% of Libyas gross domestic product (GDP) (IMF 2009). Libya holds the largest crude oil deposit in Africa amounting close to 44 billion barrels of oil reserves (OGJ 2010). EIA 2008 data indicate that 2008 total oil production in Libya was approximately 1.88 million barrels per day (bbl/d). Energy is the backbone of the economy availability of cheap energy compared to other Mediterranean countries has helped to the expansion of all sectors, like industry, commerce, construction and services. However, as much gas is found in the crude (associated gas), Libya engages in gas flaring activities (to get rid of associated gas) thus ensuring a steady and direct injection of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. LIBYAN CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES Current energy supply in Libya cannot be considered as sustainable sources of energy, with increasing cost of energy from attendant increase in exploration and refining cost, there is also the case of fuel sources being limited and environmental problems. Fossil fuel is limited or finite and Libya relies on energy from two limited conventional sources. Oil: With total discovered resources estimated to 44 billion bbl. Natural Gas: With total discovered resources estimated to 1300 billion m3. It is estimated that Libyas oil resources will not last more than 50 years with current rate of exploration and production, albeit natural gas is expected to last a little longer (Saleh 2006) It is projected that by the year 2050, prices of crude oil barrel may reach more than $200 while Libya would require about 70 million barrels of oil per year for electricity production requirement costing about 14 billion dollars annually. This would ultimately result in pressure on crude oil sources, its availability and increase in cost of generating electricity therefore underpinning the need for more sustainable forms of energy. By contrast, the abundance of potential sustainable energy in Libya decries the dependence on fossil fuels for example; the solar radiation in Libya is equivalent to a layer of 25 cm of crude oil per year on the land surface. Energy and emissions figures in libya Jacqueline 2000 reports that the amount of greenhouse gases emitted determines the magnitude and rate of future climate change, the sensitivity of climate to these gases and the degree to which the effects are modified by aerosol emissions. Libya, with 2002 estimations, had a 69.2 % energy consumption from oil and 30.8 % from natural gas, the emissions of CO2 attributed mainly to oil (71.7 %) and (28.3 %) natural gas (EIA, 2005), this means invariably that the energy sector which is the main source of greenhouse emissions in Libya depends mainly on fossil fuels (oil and natural gas). CO2 emission in Libya is put at 55.5 million tonnes per annum in 2009 following United Nations reports relating to 9.19 tonnes per capita and 31.5 tonnes per kilometre square (World Bank 2010). Libyan Energy consumption by Sector Current Libyan Energy consumption shows a total dependence on energy from fossil fuel sources. With domestic consumption of 273,000 bbl/d in 2008, shared within the sectors as described below. Residential 34% Industry 27% Commercial 27% Transport 12% Source: Oil and Gas Directory 2010. Figure 1: Current energy consumption in Libya by sector Table 1: Energy Production in Libya Type Production Consumption Export Natural Gas 12 b m3/y 3 b m3/y 9 b m3/y Oil 0.6 b bbl/y 0.1 b bbl/y 0.5 b bbl/y Electicity 20 T Wh/y Source: Saleh 2006 Environmental Impact Carbon Implication/ Future projections Libyan power stations utilize only fuel from fossil sources to generate electricity, and with the high demand of energy, from all the sectors which is estimated to more than double by 2050, there is going to be substantial increase in CO2 emissions by 2050, thus raising atmospheric carbon levels and contributing ever so gravely to the already deteriorating state of the climate. With the varied effect of global warming already being felt steps need to be taken to limit further emissions and manage present situation. Anthropic emissions of CO2 amounted to 26 billion tonnes in 2004. In a reference scenario extrapolating current trends, CO2 emissions are set to double by 2050, to more than 50 billion tonnes of CO2 a year. Continuing this trend would lead to an atmospheric concentration of CO2 exceeding 1,000ppm (parts per million) at the end of the 21st century, a concentration that is totally unacceptable in terms of its climate impact and its socio-economic consequences (IFP 2007). Global Warming Trends/ Future Trends In a bid to predict future climate change conditions, Scientists develop mathematically-based climate models. Adopting different assumptions on how various factors play to predict how atmospheric CO2 levels and temperatures will change in future. The variables in each model include: Population growth rate Economic development Energy use Efficiency of energy use Mix of energy technologies The graph below shows the results from three climate models used by the IPCC, with predictions starting in 1990 and ending in the year 2100. In all three, the global population rate rises during the first half of the century, and then declines. The A1B model assumes rapid economic growth and increased equity-the reduction of regional differences in per-person income. New and more efficient technologies are introduced, without relying heavily on a single energy source. The A1F1 model is the same as A1B, but assumes the continued use of fossil fuel-intensive technologies. In the B1 model, the world moves rapidly from a producer-consumer economy toward a service and information economy. There is a reduction in the use of raw materials, and an emphasis on clean and efficient technologies and improved equity. Other models have been developed, each based upon a different set of assumptions. Figure 2: Adapted from IPCC, Third Assessment Report on Climate Change, 2001. Global temperature increases predicted by three different IPCC climate models. Although differing in degree, these three climate prediction models show similar trends: The projected rate of global warming in the future is much larger than the rate of global warming during the 20th century. Predicted rates of global warming are greater than any seen in the past 10,000 years. (Exploring earth 2009) From the chart above it is clear where we have to take a stand. With the above stated premise and the statistical review, it is imperative to develop a strategy that first curtails present carbon emissions and subsequently reduces the overall generation from various sources described above. MITIGATING CLIMATE CHANGE VIA LIBYAN ENERGY POLICY INCORPORATING RENEWABLE ENERGY Strategies for reducing CO2 emissions by 80% by 2050 and Implementation Techniques Taking into cognisance current emission trends and sectors fingered in CO2 emissions, cutting down of emission cannot be over emphasized. A proactive approach to detailing of strategic plans of action for implementation must take into account past emission log; fully understand the current situation and project reduction measures that proffer solutions through a cost effective and practicable approach. To achieve these, the need to fully understand the scope of the problems at hand is imperative. To this end, I propose a utilitarian based all inclusive approach to reducing 80% emission by 2050. My approach is based on the incorporation of renewable energy in the Libyan energy policy. Libyan Renewable Energy Potential Libyan geographical location positions 88% of its area in the Sahara desert region of Africa, where there is a high propensity of solar energy which can be used to generate electricity via solar energy conversions, of both photovoltaic panels, and or thermally. According to the trans Mediterranean interconnection for concentrating solar power (MED-CSP)highlights Libyas renewable energy potention as depicted in the table below. Table 2: Renewable energy sources for Libya Type Potentiality Solar electricity 140,000 TWh/y Wind electricity 15 TWh/y Biomass 2 TWh/y Total 157,000 TWh/y Source: Saleh 2006 .This shows enough renewable resource potential to meet 3 times electricity demand in Libya by the year 2050 Renewable energy hold advantages over conventional fossil fuel sources for the provision of energy in that they portend convenience and are economically effective and viable in many areas of applications. Libyan renewable energy resource consists of photovoltaic conversion of solar energy, solar thermal applications, wind energy, and Biomass Solar Energy conversion of solar energy in Libya for electricity generations could be in two forms, the utilization of photovoltaics or solar thermal application. Thermal Conversions Solar heaters were introduced in Libya in 1983 with a pilot project that included 10 systems. The effectiveness of these systems has led to installation of about 2000 additional solar heaters. Figures show that water heating consumes about 12% of energy from national electricity production however, fundamental issues limit wider application of thermal converters for water heating in Libya, these issues include; Absence of decentralised national or personal electricity generation industry. Lack of information for the people. Low electric energy tariff. Solar Photovoltaics Operating on the simple principle of direct conversion of solar power into electricity, achieved by the agitation of electrons in P-N junctions by photons which thus creates an electric current which is tapped of by conducting wires. PV resource potential within Libya is enormous; current small scale applications highlight the use of PV in the following areas; PV in Microwave Communication Networks Amongst the 500 repeater station in Libya, 9 have been run by photovoltaic systems up until the end of 1997 producing a total peak power of 10.5 KWp. Of these, four still run after 26 years of work, with minimal maintenance as the batteries which they use are open type batteries and were replaced three times with an average lifetime of eight years. With the technical and economical success of PV systems, all communication networks previously powered by diesel generators were converted to PV systems thus effectively bringing the total number of PV run station to about 80. The total installed photovoltaic peak power by 2005 was around 420 KWp. (Saleh Ibrahim et al., 2003). PV in Cathodic protection Saleh Ibrahim et al., (2004), showed it cost $1.4 to supply one KWh of daily supply load of 15 KWh for a cathodic protection (CP) station located 5 Km from a 11 KV electric grid. Also another study showed that PV systems were more convenient and economical for the production of a daily CP load of 7.5 KWh from a distance of more than 1.2 Km from the 11 KV electric grid. This highlighted the importance and value of PV systems and hence their application. Further Future Applications PV systems in Rural Electrification In Libya rural areas face electrification problems because they are far away from the national grid and it wouldnt be economical to extend electric network to low demand areas, to this end the incorporation of PV systems would be invaluable. Currently, Libya plans to electrify rural areas consist of scattered houses, villages, and water pumping with PV systems, these Villages include; Mrair Gabis village, Swaihat village, Intlat village, Beer al-Merhan village, and Wadi Marsit village (Saleh Ibrahim et al., 2006) The installation of PV systems started in the middle of 2003. The total number of systems installed by General Electric company of Libya (GECOL) is 340 with a total capacity of 220 kWp, while the ones installed by the Center of Solar Energy Studies (CSES) and the Saharan Center are 150 with a total power of 125 KWp. The applications are: 380 systems for isolated houses, 30 systems for police stations, and 100 systems for street illumination. The total peak power is 345 KWp. PV for Water pumping The use of PV systems in Water pumping portends great advantages for rural communities as remote wells which are used to supply water for human and live stock that are located in rural places. Environment: It is worthy to note that the environmental impact of PV is less than that of any other renewable (Boyle 2004), however, concerns have been showed for toxic compounds used in the production of some PV e.g. Cadmium. Economics: From the word go, PV systems have continued to improve in cost effectiveness and if such a trend keeps up, it could become a force for contention with fossil fuels. Integration: With no medium for storing of electricity and the fluctuating nature of PV generation problems accrue over integration of PV electricity to the National grid. Although, the grid is designed to cope with massive fluctuations in demand, and similarly fluctuating supply like PV considered negative loads, analyst suggest that without large amounts of cheap electricity storage PV sources cannot make major contributions (Boyle 2004). Presently the conversion efficiency of PV cells is low (15%-30%) so this may hamper possibilities. Wind Energy Since 1940, wind energy has been utilized for water pumping in many oases. The potential of this renewable energy source has not been fully harnesses in Libya especially for powering rural communities and farms and use in irrigation. 2004 Libyan measurements of the wind speed statistics showed that there is a high potential for wind energy in Libya with the average wind speed at a 40 meter height is between 6- 7.5 m/s. The Libyan government has seen the potential in wind energy generation of electricity and have contracted the the project for use of wind energy for electricity production. This project includes the installation of a 25 MW wind farm as a pilot project. Also, a project to prepare two Atlas that provide fast access to reliable solar and wind data throughout Libya is also been contracted for. The Atlas will allow for accurate analysis of the available wind and solar resources anywhere in Libya, and will be therefore be invaluable to the planning of profitable wind farms a nd solar projects. In other to meet the target of an 80% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050, it is imperative to tackle from source electricity generation which utilises fossil fuels by the setting up of an energy policy that seeks to ensure that energy from renewable energy sources contributes 10% to Libyas electricity demand by the year 2020. As stated above, photovoltaic has been used for small and medium sized remote applications with proven economic feasibility; however, several constraints and barriers, including costs exist. The experience of rural applications shows that there is a high potential of building large scale PV plants in the south of the Mediterranean. The potential for utilizing, home grid connected photovoltaic systems, large scale grid connected electricity generation using Wind farms, and solar thermal for electricity generation is great, with capacities of several thousands of MW. At the business end, Libya can expand its electricity generation capacities from its eneormous renewable source to meet the demands of Mediterranean countries, taking advantage of its proximity to the European energy market. This can be considered as a future plan. The potential for Solar energy resources to effectively replace oil and gas has to be harnessed. Renewable energy resources portend good opportunities for technology transfer and international cooperation. In the current Libyan energy clime, the decentralised nature of renewable energy technologies make them particularly well suited for rural energy development further enhancing use of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) adopted by Kyoto Protocol in renewable energy applications that wou ld reduce CO2 emissions. For Proper development of Libyan Renewable energy potential, the following have to be met: Promotion of private investment in transfer of renewable energy technology and services. Introduce renewable energy in formal education curriculum as well as Increase informal education on all energy aspects. Development of policies that support the introduction of renewables via local, national and international partnerships Courage the international investment to invest in the industry. International cooperation that seeks to aid the development and construction of large scale solar energy applications as a pilot project. Development and support, of technical, financial, and institutional, research mechanisms for sustainable development. Development of national energy policies and regulatory frameworks that would aid in the creation of the necessary economic, social and institutional conditions in the energy sector and improve access to reliable, affordable, economically viable socially acceptable and environmentally sound energy services for sustainable development. CONCLUSION Current Libyan energy policy depicts a system that lacks efficiency in the production and consumption of energy, challenge lies in the development of energy efficiency in the various sectors with several barriers including: lack of access to technology, capacity building, and institutional issues. In other to achieve energy efficiency in both energy consumption and production sides, it is imperative to incorporate renewable energy in all energy end-using sectors, the focus is on improving equipment efficiency of services, such as heating and air conditioning equipment, appliances, lighting and motors. On the supply and production side, energy management should focus on incorporation of renewable energy in energy generation, improved industrial processes, co generation and energy recovery systems. Energy efficiency can help reducing cost, preserving natural resources and protecting the environment.. Furthermore, as Libya is a non annex I country under the UNFCCC, and a signatory to the Kyoto protocol, Libya is currently eligible for the CDM. The main emitters of CO2 in 2003 are fuel combustion in the power generation sector. Libyas energy related CO2 emissions increased by more than 78% in one decade mostly due to increased energy supply and significant reduction could be achieved if improved energy utilization efficiency by the major energy sectors is encouraged. Conclusively, The Legislative Act Number 7 of 1982 concerning the protection of the environment which is Libyas biggest environmental protection act looks into a holistic plan to protect the environment, water, land, wildlife, plants, food etc from the deleterious activities of both man and nature. This piece of legislation which has a total of 11 sections and 75 articles was promulgated by the General Peoples Congress, Libyas highest executive authority. Below are the underlisted sections of this legislation: Section 1 General Provisions Section 2 Protection of the Atmosphere Section 3 Protection of Seas and Marine Resources Section 4 Protection of Water Resources Section 5 Protection of Foodstuffs Section 6 Environmental Health Section 7 Protection from Contagious Diseases Section 8 Soils and Plant Protection Section 9 Protection of Wildlife Section 10 Interim Provisions Section 11 Penalties The import of these legislation, and strict enforcements would help Libya in meeting the 2050 target of 80% reduction in CO2 emission.

Psychos in our mist :: psychopathic behavior

For most of us the idea of a psychopath conjures up images from movies like "Silence of The Lambs" and characters with names like "Hannibal Lector." Fortunately characters like Hannibal don’t really exist. Serial killers and people involved in ritual torture are rare, but psychopathic behavior is more common than you might think. I have known several psychopaths in my life. The clearest case involved an older teen who had no sense of guilt. He could learn the rules, but he had no sense of conscience. The only thing that saved him was a mother who loved him, took him to counseling for years and spent a great deal of time patiently teaching him right from wrong. I remember a conversation where he told me, "People know when something is wrong because it feels wrong. I have to remember or be reminded that stealing from someone is wrong. I don’t feel bad if I take something." Meeting this young boy changed my opinion of a psychopathic personality. Why? Because children with this condition are "emotionally blind." And while I do not excuse cruelty or criminal behavior, I have sympathy and appreciate how hard it is for some people to learn how to act responsibly. Without help, potentially psychopathic children will become adults who never remain attached to anyone or anything for long. They may end up living a "predatory" lifestyle, feeling little or no regret, and having little or no remorse - except when they are caught or about to be locked up. A psychopath is not necessarily a bad person. But they are prone to have problems with society, rules, expectations and relationships. A psychopath will use people for excitement, entertainment, to build their self-esteem and they invariably value people in terms of their material value (e.g. money, property, comfort, etc..). They can involve and get other people into trouble quickly and they seem to have no regret for their actions. To date there is no checklist of behavior and symptoms that will tell you with certainty whether or not a person is a psychopath. But there are warning signs. The following warning signs are based on my experience but primarily research conducted by Robert Hare, Ph.D - the leading expert on the Psychopathic Personality. Characteristics of a Psychopath superficial charm self-centered & self-important need for stimulation & prone to boredom deceptive behavior & lying conning & manipulative little remorse or guilt

Love/Hate Othello Essay

In love comes an exponentially vast array of emotions that can all show themselves at one time or another. One of those emotions that comes with love is hatred. Walter Raleigh once said, â€Å"Hatreds are the cinders of affection.† If you can find feelings of hate towards someone you love, it is because you truly love them. This is why Othello has so much hate towards Desdemona in act III. In act III, Iago plants the thought in Othello’s head that his wife, Desdemona, is having an affair with Cassio. Iago acts reluctant to answer Othello when he asks him if he feels Cassio is trustworthy, but it is all a performance put on to get in Othello’s head. Thoughts race through Othello’s head on why Desdemona would ever cheat on him, bringing out his deepest insecurities. Haply for I am black, And have not those soft parts of conversation That chamberers have; or for I am declined Into the vale of years—yet that’s not much— She’s gone. I am abused, and my relief Must be to loathe her. O curse of marriage, That we can call these delicate creatures ours And not their appetites! I had rather be a toad And live upon the vapor of a dungeon Than keep a corner in the thing I love For others’ uses. Yet ’tis the plague of great ones; Prerogatived are they less than the base. ’Tis destiny unshunnable, like death. (III.iii.267–279) The thought of these self proclaimed â€Å"flaws† makes him bring up feelings of anger and hatred, making him question if Desdemona ever truly loved him or lied to him all along. However, deep down, he still has nothing but love for her. Othello only wants to kill Desdemona and not Cassio because he feels as if she betrayed him. There was never any real relationship between Cassio and Othello aside from the military, so he doesn’t feel the same hatred towards him as with Desdemona. Othello feels that if he is not worthy to be with Desdemona, then nobody is. He loves her so much that he wants her all to himself. Selfish? Yes. Does it mean Othello doesn’t love Desdemona? No, the exact opposite. It is his great love for Desdemona which drives him to do such crazy things and have such insane thoughts. In the end, regardless of his actions, Othello loves Desdemona with all of his heart. Never before this was there any trouble in their marriage, only romantic, gleeful times. This shows that hatred and love can, in fact, coexist. Hatred and love may be polar opposites, but as they say, opposites attract.

The Membrane essays

The Membrane essays The membrane has a double lipid layer through which fat- soluble substances will move, by passive transport or diffusion. The molecules will only move through if they are small enough. There are globular protein regions, which are hydrophilic. These regions allow water and water soluble substances through, but only if they are small enough, for example starch grains are too big. These substances move through by passive transport or diffusion. Diffusion is the passive movement of substances from a high concentration to a low concentration ( N.B., you don't need a membrane present, e.g. diffusion occurs in the air). In CONTRAST, diffusion of water across a semi- permeable membrane is called OSMOSIS. Active transport requires energy from ATP, and involves carrier molecules studding the membranes. The carrier combines with the molecule on the outside, which requires ATP. It then moves across, (which also requires ATP), and returns. An example is glucose being transported by active transport by insulin. Why is it called the Fluid Mosaic Model? Fluid- it is called a fluid because proteins are said to wander through the membrane (hence fluid) Mosaic- it is a mosaic because it is a collection (or mosaic) of structures Model- because no matter how real the diagram looks, it is not real. Therefore, it is a model. SO you put all three bits together and you get. FLUID MOSAIC MODEL! YAY!!!!!! ...

WATER IN EGYPT essays

WATER IN EGYPT essays Water was more important to the development of a working civilization in Ancient Egypt than Mesopotamia for the following reasons: irrigation, drinking, resources and trade. Although these factors were used by both Egypt and Mesopotamia, the latter had a better understanding and control over water than Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia (3500 B.C.E. - 530 B.C.E.) was located in northeast Syria, which is now know today as Iraq. It was mainly surrounded by water, most notably the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which is how it adopted its name the land between the rivers. Luckily it was also located on the site of some of the worlds first permanent farming villages. The land and climate within these regions was not the best area for the development of a working civilization, as the South was primarily flat flood plain. Flooding was the Mesopotamia peoples main problem, based on a lack of knowledge on how to deal with them. The floods were unpredictable, and created hazards to the settlements situated near the rivers, such as destruction of land and housing. Based on the constant floods travel and communication were also hindered by the flooding. After many civilizations were conquered, the people of Mesopotamia finally learned to control the floods in the South and used their acquired knowledge to drain the land and irrigate the soil. This in turn lead to the people of the region producing many different types of food, and contributing to their striving civilization. By this time their reign was almost coming to an end, and was relatively useless to them. Water was never used to the best advantage by Mesopotamia. They were unable to control flooding or to develop adequate drainage, therefore it was of limited use to them. Ancient Egypt (3100 B.C.E. - 395 B.C.E.), just as Mesopotamia, developed around a large river. This river was and still is know as The Nil...

Issues In Financial Reporting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Issues In Financial Reporting - Essay Example IASC has seven members which "have formal liaison responsibilities with the national standard-setters in their respective countries" (Carrol and Dixon, 2003). These countries are the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, Australia and New Zealand (the last two being represented by the same liaison member). Earlier the Australian Financial Reporting Council supported the policy of international harmonization in the sphere of accounting standards; Australian government launched one of the most effective programs of compliance with the IFRS in the world; at the same time Australia had a very developed accounting system which allowed to effectively monitor the firm's condition. However, recently the Australian Financial Reporting Council (AFRC) proclaimed the policy of adoption of IFRS. Such radical change has caused a lot of debates whether this decision will be a benefit to Australia or will worsen its position. This essay is dedicated to analysis of advantages and disadvantages of the AFRC's decision. Since globalization is one of the main tendencies in international economy, the interaction between Australian companies and foreign firms is increasing. It is common knowledge that volumes of international trade are growing rather in geometrical than in arithmetical progression. The countries which will be the first to open their economies to international trade, will receive the chance for significant economical growth. One of the necessary demands of international trade is the compliance of accounting standards and maximal ease of financial reporting. Adoption of IFRS, according to Collett et al. (2001), will lead to the increase of capital flow to the national market, and will also give the possibility to export the capital to other countries with lower cost for this and with simplified procedure. On one hand, these arguments are evident; the increased flow of capital is likely to benefit economical growth of the country. On the other hand, the expansion of foreign capital means a challenge to the national companies; it can also be doubted that national capital will quickly flow to other countries; this can be true only for countries with less developed economical and financial system than the Australian one. In my opinion, it is difficult to determine whether this argument belongs to advantages or disadvantages of IFRS adoption since the flows of capital depend on many other factors. 1.2. Improvement in capital market efficiency There exists an opinion that adoption of IFRS will lead to better accuracy of capital pricing and to higher efficiency of Australian

Behavior in Higher Mammals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Behavior in Higher Mammals - Essay Example They achieved a balance between molecular work, on the one hand, and anatomical and paleontological2 work on the other hand making them the higher amongst the all mammals found. Scientists say placental mammals are the most prominent mammals in the world today. Realizing the biggest category of the mammals we need to understand the ways in which we could observe them. Various precautions have to be taken before beginning with this activity. Some the things that have to be studied are It would be easy to observe domestic mammals in the beginning if you are not equipped with complete biological exploring4 kit. If you have a large team and resources you can go out and observe them in open settings else placental mammals can be started with to begin the study. Some of the placental mammals include rats, squirrels, rabbits, elephants, horses, lions, tigers, pandas, pigs, sheep, dolphins, whales, as well as humans and other primates. So we can begin our study by choosing the mammals we can have control over like rats, squirrel, pig, sheep, dolphins because they might be too friendly about your observation activity. So being precautious friendly mammal has to be chosen before you become expert with the technique of observing mammals. (According to Frost, PWS and the Gulf of Alaska (GOA)) Some o... Various precautions have to be taken before beginning with this activity. Some the things that have to be studied are We need to study the eating habits of the mammal. Realization of its food chain and biome3 is most necessary. Categorization into domestic and free mammal has to be realized. If one chooses to observe a mammal in a natural and semi natural surroundings one has to get knowledge about their foot marks their smell and things which attract them. Gulati Peeyush 2007 Keen observations have to be made depending upon the environment we have chosen to make observations. It would be easy to observe domestic mammals in the beginning if you are not equipped with complete biological exploring4 kit. If you have a large team and resources you can go out and observe them in open settings else placental mammals can be started with to begin the study. Some of the placental mammals include rats, squirrels, rabbits, elephants, horses, lions, tigers, pandas, pigs, sheep, dolphins, whales, as well as humans and other primates. So we can begin our study by choosing the mammals we can have control over like rats, squirrel, pig, sheep, dolphins because they might be too friendly about your observation activity. So being precautious friendly mammal has to be chosen before you become expert with the technique of observing mammals. (According to Frost, PWS and the Gulf of Alaska (GOA)) Some of the richest marine mammal fauna in the world: 21 species are currently known to live in these waters, of these 21, four species - the harbor seal, the killer whale, the sea otter, and the stellar sea lion - would likely be the easiest and most useful to monitor. So if you are technologically

International Relations Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International Relations Paper - Essay Example It has been one of the most researched topics by professionals and academics alike. The field has made more development over the last decade than it ever made in the past. Many scholars suggest different reasons for the implementation of good international relations. They cite different benefits of international relations accruing to the implementing countries and to the entire world as a whole. One scholar suggests that international relations are dominated by two poles. At one end, the sphere of International Relations should be the policies of the United States with the rest of the world, and on the other, it is the EU controlling the flow of policies in the international relations. International Relations gained more prominence after the USSR-USA Cold War in the 1990s. Both of these nations tried to win allies and hence it started a cycle of every country trying to find a partner in the sphere of politics, trade, security and power. International Relations have become an importan t aspect in international relations because every country days is trying to show the strength in number after the US-Iran tensions. There are a lot of advantages of developing a sound policy of international relations, not just by the super powers of the world, but for every nation of the world. (Krotz & Maher, 2005) Many social scientists have argued that International Relations are totally driven by Trade Policies. In fact the economies of the world have become so interlinked that is unimaginable to separate them with the politics and other important facets of the international political environment. Therefore an important part of foreign or international relation is the economic and business development part. No two countries can have stable relations unless they are involved in the international trade. Many social scientists believe that it is the bilateral trade that drives the foreign policy of all countries. The breakdown in the relationship between Iraq and the United States of America happened when Saddam Hussein threatened that Iraqi would not sell oil to American companies. This caused the international crude oil prices to soar and resulted in uncertainty and economic instability around the world. There were question marks regarding what the future holds for Iraq and how will the United States of America going to change its foreign policy in response to Saddam’s threat? It led the two countries to war. It can be said that International Relations policies are a function of trade and economic policies. Not a long ago, there was a tension between the United States of America and Republic of China. But over the years two countries have patched up their difference. Many economists believe that two nations have covertly decided that their economies are too big to go to war. In case, there is a war between the United States of America and Republic of China no one nation could emerge as a winner, but instead it would create economic instability in bo th countries, more so in the United States of America. International Relation hence cannot work alone without the economic policies. Both economic policies and International Relations work together to shape a foreign policy and hence no nation in the world cannot succeed without having sound economic and international relations policies. Another important role that good international relations play is the stable global environment. Without having stable global env

Hp Compaq Merger Essay Example for Free

Hp Compaq Merger Essay The world’s largest corporate Information Technology merger began in September 2001 when HP announced that they would acquire Compaq in an all stock purchase valued at $25 billion. Over an 8 month period ending in May 2002, the merger passed shareholder and regulatory approval with the end result being one company. The new HP has annual sales of approximately $90 billion which is comparable to IBM, and an operating income of almost $4 billion. The merger was led by Carly Fiorina, the chairwoman and CEO of HP.   The president of the new HP was Michael Capellas who was the former chairman and CEO of the old HP and who has recently resigned and is now the CEO of World Com. Overall, many analysts were critical of the merger from the beginning since both Compaq and HP were struggling companies before the merger. The common question that has been raised by analysts is: Do two struggling companies make a better merged company? Some analysts have indicated that the merger is a gamble and that it is difficult to see any focused logic behind the merge considering that most I.T acquisitions are not successful. Prior to the merger, Compaq has been unable to grow despite previously buying Digital, while HP was trying to grow internally, without much success. Both companies were still adjusting to acquisitions they have made in the past and both were adjusting to new leadership (Fiorina and Capellas). The merger deal also means that there are many overlaps in products, technologies, distribution channels, services, facilities and jobs. Employee morale is a threat to a successful merger as there have been numerous layoffs -15,000 employees. The claimed annual cost savings of about $2.5 billion dollars by the year 2004 amounts to only 3 % of the combined costs of both companies. Gartner Group research has indicated that the merged company has failed to do a good enough job of presenting the benefits of an acquisition of this scale to justify the deal’s risk as it is generally known that technology mergers rarely work. In addition, both companies in the past have struggled to resolve conflicts between direct and indirect sales channels. The cultural background of both companies is quite different and integration will take a long time. The culture at HP is based on consensus; Compaq’s culture on the other hand is based on rapid decision making. From a positive perspective, most botched tech mergers involved companies that were trying to buy their way into new businesses they knew little about, this is not the case with the HP/Compaq merger. Apart from servers and PC’s, they have several areas where their products overlap e.g.: they are both are involved in making data -storage equipment and both make hand held computing devices. In addition, both companies also bring different strengths to the table. Compaq has done a better job in regard to engineering an entire line and HP has been strong in consumer products. The justification provided by HP senior management suggests that a merger will enable them to compete with two of their biggest competitors, IBM and Dell.  In conclusion, it is viewed by many analysts that there will be at least 2 more years of bitter infighting which will cause the new HP to lose direction and good personnel. This is great news for competitors such as IBM and Sun as both of them will be able to pick off the market while the new HP is distracted by the merger. The new HP may be a threat to IBM but not anytime soon. It could take several years to determine if the largest merger in I.T history will be a success or a complete flop. THE IT INDUSTRY PROFILE Information technology (IT) is a broad field that covers all aspects of managing and processing information. IT professionals design, develop, support, and manage computer software, hardware, and networks. From the exuberant growth of its early years to the uncertainty of recent times, the IT industry has stabilized—with job growth rates now rising steadily—and continues to change in order to meet the needs of the business world. While the wild optimism that surrounded the IT industry a few years back has been deflated, the IT industry is adapting to a changing market. New developments such as creating infrastructure for mobile technologies will continue to ensure the vitality and viability of the industry. And as the industry responds to new business needs, it will continue to evolve into a mature profession, a profession versatile enough to adapt to new demands and stable enough to support new innovations and developments. In information technology (IT), India has built up valuable brand equity in the global markets. In IT-enabled services (ITES), India has emerged as the most preferred destination for business process outsourcing (BPO), a key driver of growth for the software industry and the services sector. The IT industry is passing through a phase of mergers and consolidations in India largely in line with global trends. Companies are focusing on organic as well as inorganic growth. Indian IT companies are prowling for potential acquisitions both in the domestic as well as foreign markets. 3 Indian software companies – TCS, Infosys, and Wipro have all crossed the billion dollar mark. Competition in the Indian IT arena is increasing leaps and bounds with global giants like IBM, Accenture, and CSC etc.   Trends over the last five years tell the story of Dell’s increasing market share, at the cost of its competitors. This degree of competition prompted a  merger between HP and Compaq in 2001; IBM has refocused its priorities to lucrative corporate customers. In 2003, the PC industry grew 11 % as a whole. Despite differing focuses, all players saw an increased demand by consumers for new systems. INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPANY PROFILE HEWLETT PACKARD In 1938, two electrical engineering graduates from Stanford University called William Hewlett and David Packard started their business in a garage in Palo Alto. In a years time, the partnership called Hewlett-Packard was made and by the year 1947 HP was incorporated. It began offering stocks for public trading 10 years later. The company has been prospering ever since as its profits grew from five and half million dollars in 1951 to about 3 billion dollars in 1981. The pace of growth knew no bounds as HPs net revenue went up to 42 billion dollars in 1997. Starting with manufacturing audio oscillators, the company made its first computer in the year 1966 and it was by 1972 that it introduced the concept of personal computing by introducing the first scientific hand-held. HP introduced its first personal computer in the year 1980. The company is also known for the laser-printer which it introduced in the year 1985. HP – Product Portfolio * Laptop/Notebooks * Palmtops/PDA * Printers and Printing Consumables * Digicams * Scanners * Monitors * Mainframes Major Competitors * IBM – Servers, PCs, Storage and IT services * Dell – PCs * Canon – Printers, Fax, Copiers and Optical Equipment * Compaq – PCs, Servers and Pocket Computers COMPAQ Compaq Computer Corporation is an American personal computer company founded  in the year 1982. It had the charm of being called the largest manufacturers of personal computing devices worldwide. The company was formed by two senior managers at Texas Instruments. The name of the company had come from-Compatibility and Quality. The company introduced its first computer in the year 1983 after at a price of 2995 dollars. In spite of being portable, the problem with the computer was that it seemed to be a suitcase. Nevertheless, there were huge commercial benefits from the computer as it sold more than 53,000 units in the first year with a revenue generation of 111 million dollars. Company existed as an independent corporation until 2002, when it was acquired for $25 billion by Hewlett Packard. COMPAQ – Product Portfolio * Enterprise Computing Group * Mainframes * Servers * Workstations * Internet products * Networking Products * Commercial Products * Portables * Small and Medium Business Solutions Major Competitors * IBM – Servers, PCs, Storage and IT services * Sun Microsystems – Servers * Dell – PCs * HP – PCs, IT Services and Pocket Computers * Palm – Pocket Computers PRE – MERGER STATS FOR HP COMPAQ RELATIVE PERFORMANCE OF HP AND COMPAQ HP – COMPAQ MERGER â€Å"If HP was progressing at such a tremendous pace, what was the reason that  the company had to merge with Compaq?† Carly Fiorina, who became the CEO of HP in the year 1999, had a key role to play in the merger that took place on 3rd September, 2001. She was the first woman to have taken over as CEO of such a big company and the first outsider too. She worked very efficiently as she travelled more than 250,000 miles in the first year as a CEO. Her basic aim was to modernize the culture of operation of HP. She laid great emphasis on the profitable sides of the business. This shows that she was very extravagant in her approach as a CEO. In spite of the growth in the market value of HPs share from 54.43 to 74.48 dollars, the company was still inefficient. This was because it could not meet the targets due to a failure of both company and industry. HP was forced to cut down on jobs and also be eluded from the privilege of having Price Water House Coopers to take care of its audit. So, even the job of Fiorina was under threat. This meant that improvement in the internal strategies of the company was not going to be sufficient for the companys success. Ultimately, the company had to certainly plan out something different. So, it was decided that the company would be acquiring Compaq in a stock transaction whose net worth was 25 billion dollars. Initially, this merger was not planned. It started with a telephonic conversation between CEO HP, Fiorina and Chairman and CEO Compaq, Capellas. The idea behind the conversation was to discuss on a licensing agreement but it continued as a discussion on competitive strategy and finally a merger. It took two months for further studies and by September, 2001, the boards of the two companies approved of the merger. In spite of the decision coming from the CEO of HP, the merger was strongly opposed in the company. The two CEOs believed that the only way to fight the growing competition in terms of prices was to have a merger. But the investors and the other stakeholders thought that the company would never be able to have the loyalty of the Compaq customers, if products are sold with an HP logo on it. Other than this, there were questions on the synchronization of the organizations members with each other. This was because of the change in the organization culture as well. Even though these were supposed to serious problems with respect to the merger, the CEO of HP, Fiorina justified the same with the fact that the merger would remove one serious competitor in the over-supplied PC market of those days. She said  that the market share of the company is bound to increase with the merger and also the working unit would double. GROWING PROBLEMS AT HP * HP was not adapting to technological innovation fast enough * Margins were going down * IPG (HP’s Imaging and Printing Group) was the leader in its market segment but did not rank anywhere among top 3 in servers, storage or services * Printing line was facing competition from Lexmark and Epson which were selling lower-quality inexpensive printers * Needed to build strong complementary business lines HP’s POSITION BEFORE MERGER * By 2001, as the industry stumbled, meeting growth targets became difficult for HP and it was forced to cut jobs and scrap plans * As a result HP stock price dropped drastically * Turning the company around required more than just strategy from within OBJECTIVES OF THE MERGER * Increase competition with major competitors i.e. IBM, Dell * Cut costs by $3 billion annually by 2004 * Increase earnings for shareholders * Face the challenge of a shrinking market EXPECTATIONS FROM THE MERGER OF HP AND COMPAQ * The merger of HP with Compaq will create superior customer value by expanding its product range and together HP and Compaq can focus on R D in a greater extend. * The second best benefit that the merger will emerge is cost benefit by generating cost synergies reaching approximately $2.5 bn annually. * Drive a significantly improved cost structure, approximate assets of $56.4 billion, and annual revenues of $87.4 billion and annual operating earnings of $3.9 billion. * Adds up to world-class innovation and quality through the merger of two of the leading IT companies of the world. * Larger PC position resulting from the merger likely to increase risk and dilute shareholders interest. * Operations in more than 160 countries and over 1,45,000 employees. * Expand the numbers of the company’s service professionals. * Improves access to the market with Compaq’s direct capability and low cost structure. * Work force reduction by around 15,000 employees saving around $1.5 billion per year. * Improve HP’s market share. KEY POINTS THAT ENCOURAGED THE MERGER DECISION * HP’s failure to meet target (in spite of increased share value) * Merger as the way to fight the growing competition in terms of prices * Merger would eliminate one player in an oversupplied PC market * To compete with IBM and other companies * Reduce costs * 1990’s IT recessionary phase * Merger expected to yield savings projected to reach $2.5bn annually by 2004 * Advantage of more volume of sales * Development of direct distribution capability * Strengthen sales force * Improve customer base ADVANTAGES OF MERGER Merger would create a full-service technology firm capable of doing everything from selling PCs and printers to setting up complex networks. Merger would eliminate redundant product groups and costs in marketing, advertising, and shipping, while at the same time preserving much of the two companies’ revenues. MARKET BENEFITS * Merger will creates immediate end to end leadership * Compaq was a clear No.2 in the PC business and stronger on the commercial side than HP, but HP was stronger on the consumer side. Together they would be No.1 in market share in 2001 * The merger would also greatly expand the numbers of the company’s service professionals. As a result, HP would have the largest market share in all hardware market segments and become the number three in market share in services * Improves access to the market with Compaq’s direct capability and low cost structure * The much bigger company would have scale advantages: gaining bargaining power with suppliers. OPERATIONAL BENEFITS * HP and Compaq have highly complementary RD capabilities * HP was strong in mid and high-end UNIX servers, a weakness for Compaq; while Compaq was strong in low-end industry standard (Intel) servers, a weakness for HP * Top management has experience with complex organizational changes * Merger would result in work force reduction by around 15,000 employees saving around $1.5 billion per year FINANCIAL BENEFITS * Merger will result in substantial increase in profit margin and liquidity * 2.5 billion is the estimated value of annual synergies * Provides the combined entity with better ability to reinvest Even though it seemed to be advantageous to very few people in the beginning, it was the strong determination of Fiorina that she was able to stand by her decision. Wall Street and all her investors had gone against the company lampooning her ideas with the saying that she has made 1+1=1.5 by her extravagant ways of expansion. Fiorina had put it this way that after the companys merger, not only would it have a larger share in the market but also the units of production would double. This would mean that the company would grow tremendously in volume. Her dream of competing with the giants in the field, IBM would also come true. She was of the view that much of the redundancy in the two companies would decrease as the internal costs on promotion, marketing and shipping would come down with the merger. This would produce the slightest harm to the collection of revenue. She used the ideas of  competitive positioning to justify her plans of the merger. She said that the merger is based on the ideologies of consolidation and not on diversification. She could also defend allegations against the change in the HP was. She was of the view that the HP has always encouraged changes as it is about innovating and taking bold steps. She said that the company requires being consistent with creativity, improvement and modification. This merger had the capability of providing exactly the same.

Causes of Increased Corporate Social Responsibility

Causes of Increased Corporate Social Responsibility Abstract Aim The main aim of this research was to establish the extent to which the increased priority of CSR is in actuality a reflection of companies acting to meet the interests of society or simply a means for generating profits in a marketing oriented way. In this regard, the research sought to explore CSR behaviour in depth and in turn tried to establish companies rationales for CSR behaviour in the UK food retail industry. Methods A mixed methodology with both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were used in the research. Qualitative content analysis was used for analysing the contents of food retailers websites pertaining to CSR. Store Audits were conducted in order to identify the CSR practices and extent to which they are exercised by different food retailers. In depth formal interviews were conducted with key decision makers with the goal of obtaining information on CSR activities. Lastly, a questionnaire survey was used with the UK consumer population as the population of interest. Results The members of the UK Food Retail Industry showed that they have given paramount importance to CSR in order to somehow become a better neighbour to their customers, render them effective public services and at the same time contribute to the preservation and protection of the environment. The responses to the questions revealed a common rationale behind their CSR policies and ensured that the organisation established a good reputation amongst the members of the community, thereby enabling the latter to maintain a certain level of trust for the UK food retailers. Conclusion The study supported the fact highlighted by previous studies that companies have become more aware and mindful of their responsibilities, roles and rights towards the society. They were seen to have implemented activities, practices and guidelines in order to fulfill their legal, ethical, social and environmental roles and responsibilities towards stakeholders, employees, customers, and environment and society in general. However, it can also be realised that these policies contribute to the building of trust in the customers towards the organisations. Thus, as the trust is established, it is more likely that the customers will remain loyal to the organisation, thereby increasing their chances of generating profit. Chapter 1: Introduction For many years Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has been associated with related terms like business ethics, corporate performance, corporate accountability, corporate responsibility and stake holder involvement. In recent years CSR has grown into a well-known collective expression. The growth of CSR has been a result of organisations realising their responsibility toward their stake holders in the context of business scandals (e.g. Enron) and a growing concern for environmental changes (e.g. global warming). The European Union defines CSR as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interactions with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis (European Commission, 2002). According to Vernon and Mackenzie (2007), the question of whether companies should seek to do good by exercising CSR, rather than concentrate solely on wealth creation, is no longer interesting and in fact the focus today is on how well companies do good. Increasingly stake holders expect companies to take on public responsibility. Companies engage in CSR through diverse activities such as donating to charitable organisations (e.g. Ben and Jerrys), green activities (e.g. moves by major retailers to eliminate plastic bags and promote green bags) and by implementing environment friendly purchase and supply policies. A survey conducted by Research International, however, found that while CSR practices are commendable, they need to be viewed with caution as these activities are not sufficient in and of themselves (Social Funds, 2000). The scepticism about CSR activities is related to the growing trend for organisations to drift away from the hard issues and concentrate more on soft issues. The Research International survey revealed that despite ignoring crucial issues such as treatment of employees, and commitment to the local community, some companies portray themselves as socially responsible using charity and other CSR activities, which deal with soft issues (Social Funds, 2000). Sceptics also believe that CSR is often used purely as a marketing tool to improving business performance. In the context of CSR being rated as a priority by companies in the last few years (Cost Sector, 2009), this research aims to study the changing nature of CSR, with particular focus on an organisations motivation for engaging in socially responsible activities (whether it is a response to societys expectations or a strategic move by a company). By contributing to a deeper understanding of rationales, notions, risks and effects of CSR, the proposed research provides strategic insights on the subject. With findings based on both corporate and stake holder perspectives on the subject, this research aims to contribute to useful and interesting reading for both businesses and stake holders. The findings of this study are based on the UK food retail industry. Food retailers make a good context for study especially considering the several socially and environmentally responsible schemes that they are involved in and the significance of CSR asserted by industry standards. In this attempt Chapter Two provides the background and review of literature conducted in order to extensively analyse previous works published with regard to Corporate Social Responsibility and the manner by which it applies to the members of the UK food retail industry. Chapter Three discusses the different methods used in order to obtain data for the study to obtain relevant results. Chapter Four then presents the results obtained from the use of the different methodologies enumerated in the study. The results shall then be discussed in relation to the aim of the study in Chapter Five and conclusions would be provided by answering the research questions. Lastly in Chapter 6 we will give us an understanding of the scope and limitations of this study. Chapter 2: Background and Literature Review 2.1 Background of the study Societys preoccupation with the social responsibility of organisations has existed since at least the early 1930s and probably even before. Wells (2002) notes that it is perhaps the infamous Dodd-Berle correspondence contained within the Harvard Law Review Issue of 1931-32 that launched the debate on corporate social responsibility. The debate started when corporate law professor Adolf A. Berle Jr. published an article arguing for the imposition of legal control on management so that only their shareholders would benefit from their decisions (Berle, 1931). E.M. Dodd, another professor from Harvard, published an article that addressed the issue raised by Berle. He argues that besides focusing on the interests of the shareholders, managers must also take into consideration the concerns of the employees, consumers and the organisations stakeholders. Berle (1931) responded by saying that companies should â€Å"not abandon emphasis on the view that business corporations exist for the sol e purpose of making profits for their stockholders until such time as [one is] prepared to offer a clear and reasonably enforceable scheme of responsibilities to someone else† (Berle, 1932, p. 1365). Since the idea of corporate social responsibility has its roots in the legal community, several academic disciplines have followed the debate with little discussion occurring between and among them (Radin, 1999). More specifically, researchers in the field of business ethics have spent substantial effort in the past two decades to come up with a stakeholder theory that would eventually fall under corporate social responsibility, existing as a separate approach to management. The issue of corporate social responsibility was not discussed after the argument between Berle and Dodd. It resurfaced in the 1960s and the 1970s against the backdrop of the civil rights movement in America. This is due to the fact that the top agendas of politicians, public interest groups, individual citizens and corporations have been largely influenced by concerns about the environment, product safety, workplace health and safety, racial and sex discrimination, urban congestion, political corruption and technological advances. Apart from this, the increasing influence and power that organisations possessed during this period (this period being the 60s and 70s?) has eventually led to a widespread societal belief that large businesses have a duty towards ensuring the betterment of society (Banner, 1979). The power and influence of corporations, actual or perceived, and the impact of their economic, social and political actions on society in general, has led to a broad societal expectation that corporations be held accountable for their actions. Simply put, there is growing public sentiment that organisations must be responsible enough to weigh the impact of their decisions on the different parties involved. As a result, they must be able to eliminate, minimize or compensate for the harmful damages that they may inflict on society. The above mentioned justification is basically derived from a moral position that corporations are expected, and should, behave like any citizen in society. This expectation is also justified on the basis that corresponding responsibilities always accompany power. As Dodd (1932) asserts, â€Å"power over the lives of others tends to create on the part of those most worthy to exercise it a sense of responsibility.† Moreover, the increasing power of organisations has resulted in a societal expectation that corporations act proactively and at the same time, carry out a leadership role in order to provide solutions to problems that the world faces (CSR Survey, 2003). This means that given that organisations frequently have more resources than governments, they should give something back to the society. In the same manner, they are also called to allocate and offer some of their resources to carry out good works and help the less fortunate sectors of society. Overall, this CSR goal is justified as follows: initially, a societal need is identified. For instance, areas such as education, healthcare, low-income housing or the arts may require funding that cannot be generated privately or that government is unable to provide to enable these institutions to continue making goods or services available or even to exist. Second, corporations are identified as capable of filling the gap by providing either funds or infrastructure to address the need. In other words, an appeal to organisations is made because they frequently have the capacity, in accordance with their size and reach, to act as agents of â€Å"social progress† (Kahn, 1997). As repeatedly mentioned earlier, corporate social responsibility has been required of companies that have both, actual or perceived power and influence. This is why multinational corporations that operate parts of the globe where people fear the effects and consequences of Globalisation are expected to perform such duties. This, according to Zinkin (2004) is usually brought about by the fact that these corporations are usually seen as enemies rather than friends. Thus, to regain the trust and confidence of the people, the company must be able to make their social responsibility known as this is said to give them legitimacy to operate in a given country (Zinkins, 2004). 2.2 Literature Review In order to gain a better understanding of the concepts and principles of CSR, the review of literature is divided into the following sections: 1. Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions and History, 2. Corporate Social Responsibility and the UK Food Retail Industry, and 3. Summary 2.2.1 Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions and History Globalisation, the increasing influence of companies including small and medium enterprises, a change in the position and opinion of governments, and a paradigm shift in working with and appreciating the importance of building solid relations with stakeholders- are all factors that have contributed to changing the dynamics of the relationship between businesses and society. Businesses have always been mindful of their responsibilities towards society. The concept of companies sharing their resources and influence with other groups has been repeatedly spoken about for centuries (Bowe, 1953). Nowadays, companies have become more aware and mindful of their responsibilities, roles and rights towards the society. They are seen to have implemented activities, practices and guidelines in order to fulfill their legal, ethical, social and environmental responsibilities to stakeholders, which include shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers and the environment and society in general. These actions have been given many terms, including: (1) Corporate Responsibility or CR, (2) Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility or CSER, (3) Corporate Citizenship, (4) Corporate Accountability, and lastly, (5) Socially Responsible Business (SRB) (Raynard Forstater, 2002). However, the most famous terminology would have to be Corporate Social Responsibility or CSR. CSR first began to be written about by academics in the 20th century. The term Corporate Social Responsibility and the modern view on CSR are largely attributed to Howard Bowen, who is considered by many scholars, especially Carroll, as the father of CSR. Bowen conceived CSR as an integral part of a larger vision of a better American society with a robust and socially responsible business sector. Before Bowen wrote his book in 1953, CSR was not a generally accepted practice among businesses in the United States. Carroll (1991) writes that in the early years, businesses believed that their only obligation was to their shareholders and their only function was the quest of financial improvement in order to provide the greatest financial return to their shareholders. The errors of this way of thinking soon became apparent. For one, businesses still had to work within laws set down by governments. In the 1960s, groups advocating social issues pushed for a more extensive concept of responsibilities for businesses. In the 1970s, various organisations in charge of the social issues pushed by the activist groups were created in the U.S. Some of these organisations were the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). These governmental organisations allowed the establishment of national public policy that now acknowledged the legality of environmen tal issues. The new policies forced businesses to re-examine their own strategies and to learn how to develop a balance between making a profit and the legal and ethical responsibilities placed on them by a widening range of stakeholders. For Bowen (1953), businesses become prominent in society because society needs the products and services provided by these companies. This grants businesses vital decision-making power in the way they affect the lives of many people. Therefore, for a balanced business-society relationship to continue, Bowen (1953) asks what responsibilities society can reasonably expect businessmen to assume. The answer to this question, Bowen states, is corporate social responsibility. He defines CSR as a social obligation that necessitates businessmen to engage in policies, formulate decisions, and implement actions that are considered desirable when connected with the objectives and values of society. He took a broad view when defining what business responsibilities include—responsiveness, stewardship, social audit, corporate citizenship and rudimentary stakeholder theory. Bowens concept of a mutual relationship between business and society is echoed by Porter and Kramer (2006), who point out that the value of CSR lies in the values companies share with societies they exist in. Businesses operate in social contexts and societies need the products and services that businesses provide, thus there is a mutual need for each entity. CSR, therefore, makes it possible to promote a collaborative relationship between business and society. Many have tried to create a definition of corporate social responsibility that encompasses its functions and the range of responsibilities it entails. One of the most comprehensive is that of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2007), which defines CSR as the long-lasting commitment that businesses create which compels them to behave in an ethical manner and to add to the development of the economy while helping improve the quality of life of their employees and their families in addition to the lives of those in the local communities and society in general. This definition is specific enough to imply the holistic and philanthropic maxim of CSR. It is also broad enough to include activities or programs that companies engage in that do not directly yield income but bring visible and long-term benefits to both the companies and the recipients of the programs and activities such as youth and partner communities. With this definition programs such as scholarships and funds for research, advocacy programs for the environment, and livelihood programs can be considered as CSR. One of the earliest authors on CSR, Carroll (1979) was the first to propose the four categories of ordered layers of CSR—economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary—when he wrote that the social responsibility of businesses includes the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society puts upon enterprises. Aupperle, Carroll, and Hatfield (1985) further defined these categories into: * Economic responsibilities showcase the principle that businesses have the primary responsibility to generate products and profits and fulfill the desires of their customers; * Legal responsibilities highlight the issue that economic responsibilities must be performed within the restriction of rules and regulations as mandated by the laws of the land; * Ethical responsibilities takes into consideration the codes, norms, and values that are not written into laws but are still followed implicitly by society; these responsibilities rise above the complexities of written laws and encompass activities that are vigorously carried out without any clear and defined statements made about them; * Discretionary or philanthropic responsibilities reflect the voluntary nature of actions that are not easy to establish and assess, but are still expected by society. These categories are still widely cited and frequently reproduced in management and CSR journals by researchers and authors on CSR. The reason for its lasting acknowledgement may be the simplicity of the model. Carrolls (1979) categories are logical and easy to understand. The author himself writes that these categories are merely guidelines or reminders that the motives or actions of businesses can be generally classified into any of the categories he presented. The arrangement and relative influence of each category was intended to imply the basic role each had in the progression of significance. When it first came out, Carrolls model reflected a point of view that was simultaneously retrospective and developmental. It was based on the assertion that historically businesses first emphasised only the economic aspects of their trade. The legal aspect came next, and the ethical and discretionary were only emphasised in recent years. Juholin (2004) suggests that companies practice corporate social responsibility (CSR) because of long-term profits that CSR brings to companies. Other reasons may also include the commitment of top management to the moral and ethical standards promoted by CSR, competitiveness of the market today, and the visionary skills of many business leaders that allows them to anticipate the needs of the future. Porter and Kramer (2006) agree that CSR provides long-term profits. The authors note that companies should practice CSR and integrate it in their core strategic plans to ensure long-term prosperity. This is because socially responsible activities can return goodwill for companies. On the other hand, activities that harm the environment or result in any disadvantage to stakeholders can only result in bad karma in the form of bad financial operation, low brand positioning, and, worse, a rift in the relationship between companies and their consumers and suppliers and even expensive litigations. Porter and Kramer (2006) write that corporations are not obligated to solve the problems of the world. They do not have resources to do this. But, a company that is well managed can have a greater impact than any other organisation or charity group when they do something good for society. CSR does not merely imply profitability for companies. Its results go beyond the costs or constraint of altruistic actions. CSR can be a source of market opportunity, improvement, and an edge over the competition (Porter Kramer, 2006). It also does not mean engaging in activities for the sake of doing what is socially required and expected of these companies based on legal and social laws, especially those on environmental issues. CSR implies taking action to go beyond these laws to minimize any harm towards and maximize benefits for all stakeholders in order to fulfill what society desires (Raynard Forstater, 2002). Warhurst (2001) identifies three major elements of CSR—product use, business practice, and distribution of profits. Product use entails the positive involvement of products from businesses that assist in the promotion of welfare and better quality of life for members of society. Business practice entails business governance that observes the rules and regulations and presents a high level of thrust towards welfare of the natural environment and equity for all generations and species. Distribution of profits entails equal distribution of profits across a varied range of sectors of society, with emphasis on local communities. Bowen (1953) also notes that CSR should not be seen as a primary solution to the many problems of society. CSR can only do so much, and it should only be seen by companies and society as a set of guidelines for businesses in the way they perform and carry on their operations within the context of a larger society and the many issues that abound within the social milieu that they operate in. A key concept of CSR is the idea of stakeholders. Stakeholders are all groups or individuals who have an impact on or are affected by the attainment of any organisations goals (Freeman, 1984). It can be said that stakeholders are any entity who have a big â€Å"stake† in what businesses do. The concept of stakeholders therefore goes beyond the shareholders, employees, and clients or customers of a company. It includes communities, public interest groups, social activist groups, environmental groups, and the media which, according to Freeman, author of the Stakeholder Theory, businesses are accountable to. Other researchers (Marcus, 1996; Munilla Miles, 2005) list specific stakeholders as: owners; customers; employees; local, regional and national communities; competitors; suppliers; social activists; public at large; creditors; non-government organisations (NGOs); and even the natural environment, which, although unable to state its opinions, has become a major stakeholder today because of the many laws promulgated to care for the Earth in a sustainable way. Hopkins (2003) writes that CSR primarily deals with ensuring that businesses treat stakeholders in an ethical or responsible way which means treating them in a manner considered suitable by members of any civilized society. The social context of this definition includes economic responsibility. Stakeholders can be both within businesses and outside it. This signifies the natural environment as a stakeholder. In a broader sense, the objective of social responsibility is to establish better and higher standards of living while maintaining the capability of businesses to make a profit. These two components of the objective of social responsibility are both done for the stakeholders within and outside companies. According to Freeman (1984) for successful transactions with stakeholders, businesses must accept the authority and procedures of various stakeholders. Stakeholders will thus have the freedom to communicate their concerns. Furthermore, to manage and develop a strong relationship with stakeholders, businesses must understand their concerns and develop programs that will address these concerns. Stakeholders have various ways to ensure that businesses fulfill societys expectations. Some may opt to organize rallies, some may opt for more peaceful negotiations, some may engage in joint activities such as seminars or tree-planting sessions or other awareness raising activities, and some may use the media to further disseminate their issues. For example, the environmental group Greenpeace printed leaflets and wrote articles against genetically modified food, which led some food manufacturing corporations to either stop production of certain products or to develop new, healthier items. Freeman (1984) points out that the term â€Å"stakeholder† first appeared in management literature in a 1963 international memorandum published by the Stanford Research Institute. The term then was strictly yet broadly defined as the peoples or groups who give their support to companies and without whom businesses would stop to surviving. The main idea in this initial context already shows a measure of the importance of stakeholders. In a way, this definition states that without the support of stakeholders, businesses would not be able to survive. Of course, the limitation of this definition lies in the fact that stakeholders here may mean only the groups that are influential for companies such as the shareholders or government groups or investors. Each business activity has a different group of stakeholders. This is because each individual in society is interested in and promotes a varied and widely different range of concerns (Freeman, 1984). Some are more interested in environmental issues, while others advocate employment benefits, and still others fight for education. One way to determine which stakeholder is relevant to which particular aspect of business is through the generation of a generic stakeholder map, which is a diagram of the various groups relevant to the whole organisation broken down into levels and subdivisions in order to divide big groups into small groups based on specific interests. Some experts, however, think that this mapping procedure does not encapsulate the complex linkages between businesses and the various individuals and groups in society. An approach of corporate social responsibility that centers on stakeholders emphasizes the strategic and effective management of relationships and promotion of what Freeman and McVea (2001) call shared interests. The stakeholder model also puts some emphasis on persuading businesses to rebuild or restore relationships with groups or organisations that they have been at odds with. A good stakeholder management program also involves open communication, negotiation, management, and motivation. The end result of all of these actions leads to the establishment of an attitude of partnership, mutual association and interdependence between businesses and stakeholders. All of these activities are held together by the values and ethical standards that businesses stand for. Freeman and McVea (2001) further emphasise that good stakeholder management promotes a business own company values. CSR does not mean catering to the interests of stakeholders while abandoning all other aspects of business. Rather it entails in-depth deliberations taking into account all factors of social expectations. A well-developed stakeholder management program also allows businesses to create approaches that can serve stakeholders even in the long run. Although some individuals may not be happy with short-term decisions and feel that their causes need more attention, a good stakeholder management program takes all things into considerations so that all stakeholders, not just a chosen few, continue to be firm supporters of businesses. Besides understanding stakeholders concerns, businesses must also look at the other components of CSR to determine the entire range of responsibilities that stakeholders expect them to embrace. When discussing and identifying these components of CSR, scholars and authors have been turning to the CSR pyramid presented by Carroll (1991). The CSR pyramid is arranged to follow the levels of Carrolls (1979) earlier work of the four categories of CSR. The arrangement is in accordance with the degrees of social expectations that have been connected with each category. It has been used to assess businesses performance in terms of quantity, quality, effectiveness, and efficiency in their implementation of CSR initiatives. Table 2.2.1 The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Be a Good Corporate Citizen Philanthropic Responsibility Contribute Resources to the community; Improve Quality of Life Be Ethical Ethical Responsibility Obligation to do what is right, just and fair; Avoid Harm Obey the Law Legal Responsibility Law is Societys codification of right and wrong; Play the Rules of the game Be Profitable Economic Responsibility The Foundation on which all the others rest (Source : Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility (Carroll, 1991, p. 39)) Obligations or responsibilities included in the pyramid have always existed in the business world. But the importance of philanthropic and ethical responsibilities has only received attention in recent years. Through this pyramid, Carroll (1991) hoped to show that a good CSR program can be broken down into well-defined components that make up a complete package. It can be seen as a framework for comprehending companies ever-evolving CSR activities. In addition, looking at each component can help leaders to distinguish and understand the various obligations of businesses that are in constant conflict with each other but which are mutually exclusive. Based on the expected activities for each level, economic responsibilities seem to be always in tension with the other responsibilities. Carroll (1991) also included the concept of stakeholders in this model, pointing out that taking their perspective into account would allow businesses to recognize the tension between all levels of the pyramid as realities of any organisation. This perspective can also allow businesses to see the pyramid as a united basis or framework of how firms will implement their decisions, actions, and programs. As can be seen, economic profit forms the foundation of the whole pyramid. Carroll (1991) acknowledges the basic fact that businesses were created historically as economic entities that are primarily concerned with making money and creating profit. Without this component, all other responsibilities become moot. Carroll states that the idea he was proposing was that CSR, to be acknowledged as a legitimate action for businesses, had to deal with the whole range of responsibilities these businesses had to answer for to society. Of course this would have to include the most basic responsibility—economic. The next level shows that businesses are obligated to follow the rules of law—various national and international laws—that socie Causes of Increased Corporate Social Responsibility Causes of Increased Corporate Social Responsibility Abstract Aim The main aim of this research was to establish the extent to which the increased priority of CSR is in actuality a reflection of companies acting to meet the interests of society or simply a means for generating profits in a marketing oriented way. In this regard, the research sought to explore CSR behaviour in depth and in turn tried to establish companies rationales for CSR behaviour in the UK food retail industry. Methods A mixed methodology with both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were used in the research. Qualitative content analysis was used for analysing the contents of food retailers websites pertaining to CSR. Store Audits were conducted in order to identify the CSR practices and extent to which they are exercised by different food retailers. In depth formal interviews were conducted with key decision makers with the goal of obtaining information on CSR activities. Lastly, a questionnaire survey was used with the UK consumer population as the population of interest. Results The members of the UK Food Retail Industry showed that they have given paramount importance to CSR in order to somehow become a better neighbour to their customers, render them effective public services and at the same time contribute to the preservation and protection of the environment. The responses to the questions revealed a common rationale behind their CSR policies and ensured that the organisation established a good reputation amongst the members of the community, thereby enabling the latter to maintain a certain level of trust for the UK food retailers. Conclusion The study supported the fact highlighted by previous studies that companies have become more aware and mindful of their responsibilities, roles and rights towards the society. They were seen to have implemented activities, practices and guidelines in order to fulfill their legal, ethical, social and environmental roles and responsibilities towards stakeholders, employees, customers, and environment and society in general. However, it can also be realised that these policies contribute to the building of trust in the customers towards the organisations. Thus, as the trust is established, it is more likely that the customers will remain loyal to the organisation, thereby increasing their chances of generating profit. Chapter 1: Introduction For many years Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has been associated with related terms like business ethics, corporate performance, corporate accountability, corporate responsibility and stake holder involvement. In recent years CSR has grown into a well-known collective expression. The growth of CSR has been a result of organisations realising their responsibility toward their stake holders in the context of business scandals (e.g. Enron) and a growing concern for environmental changes (e.g. global warming). The European Union defines CSR as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interactions with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis (European Commission, 2002). According to Vernon and Mackenzie (2007), the question of whether companies should seek to do good by exercising CSR, rather than concentrate solely on wealth creation, is no longer interesting and in fact the focus today is on how well companies do good. Increasingly stake holders expect companies to take on public responsibility. Companies engage in CSR through diverse activities such as donating to charitable organisations (e.g. Ben and Jerrys), green activities (e.g. moves by major retailers to eliminate plastic bags and promote green bags) and by implementing environment friendly purchase and supply policies. A survey conducted by Research International, however, found that while CSR practices are commendable, they need to be viewed with caution as these activities are not sufficient in and of themselves (Social Funds, 2000). The scepticism about CSR activities is related to the growing trend for organisations to drift away from the hard issues and concentrate more on soft issues. The Research International survey revealed that despite ignoring crucial issues such as treatment of employees, and commitment to the local community, some companies portray themselves as socially responsible using charity and other CSR activities, which deal with soft issues (Social Funds, 2000). Sceptics also believe that CSR is often used purely as a marketing tool to improving business performance. In the context of CSR being rated as a priority by companies in the last few years (Cost Sector, 2009), this research aims to study the changing nature of CSR, with particular focus on an organisations motivation for engaging in socially responsible activities (whether it is a response to societys expectations or a strategic move by a company). By contributing to a deeper understanding of rationales, notions, risks and effects of CSR, the proposed research provides strategic insights on the subject. With findings based on both corporate and stake holder perspectives on the subject, this research aims to contribute to useful and interesting reading for both businesses and stake holders. The findings of this study are based on the UK food retail industry. Food retailers make a good context for study especially considering the several socially and environmentally responsible schemes that they are involved in and the significance of CSR asserted by industry standards. In this attempt Chapter Two provides the background and review of literature conducted in order to extensively analyse previous works published with regard to Corporate Social Responsibility and the manner by which it applies to the members of the UK food retail industry. Chapter Three discusses the different methods used in order to obtain data for the study to obtain relevant results. Chapter Four then presents the results obtained from the use of the different methodologies enumerated in the study. The results shall then be discussed in relation to the aim of the study in Chapter Five and conclusions would be provided by answering the research questions. Lastly in Chapter 6 we will give us an understanding of the scope and limitations of this study. Chapter 2: Background and Literature Review 2.1 Background of the study Societys preoccupation with the social responsibility of organisations has existed since at least the early 1930s and probably even before. Wells (2002) notes that it is perhaps the infamous Dodd-Berle correspondence contained within the Harvard Law Review Issue of 1931-32 that launched the debate on corporate social responsibility. The debate started when corporate law professor Adolf A. Berle Jr. published an article arguing for the imposition of legal control on management so that only their shareholders would benefit from their decisions (Berle, 1931). E.M. Dodd, another professor from Harvard, published an article that addressed the issue raised by Berle. He argues that besides focusing on the interests of the shareholders, managers must also take into consideration the concerns of the employees, consumers and the organisations stakeholders. Berle (1931) responded by saying that companies should â€Å"not abandon emphasis on the view that business corporations exist for the sol e purpose of making profits for their stockholders until such time as [one is] prepared to offer a clear and reasonably enforceable scheme of responsibilities to someone else† (Berle, 1932, p. 1365). Since the idea of corporate social responsibility has its roots in the legal community, several academic disciplines have followed the debate with little discussion occurring between and among them (Radin, 1999). More specifically, researchers in the field of business ethics have spent substantial effort in the past two decades to come up with a stakeholder theory that would eventually fall under corporate social responsibility, existing as a separate approach to management. The issue of corporate social responsibility was not discussed after the argument between Berle and Dodd. It resurfaced in the 1960s and the 1970s against the backdrop of the civil rights movement in America. This is due to the fact that the top agendas of politicians, public interest groups, individual citizens and corporations have been largely influenced by concerns about the environment, product safety, workplace health and safety, racial and sex discrimination, urban congestion, political corruption and technological advances. Apart from this, the increasing influence and power that organisations possessed during this period (this period being the 60s and 70s?) has eventually led to a widespread societal belief that large businesses have a duty towards ensuring the betterment of society (Banner, 1979). The power and influence of corporations, actual or perceived, and the impact of their economic, social and political actions on society in general, has led to a broad societal expectation that corporations be held accountable for their actions. Simply put, there is growing public sentiment that organisations must be responsible enough to weigh the impact of their decisions on the different parties involved. As a result, they must be able to eliminate, minimize or compensate for the harmful damages that they may inflict on society. The above mentioned justification is basically derived from a moral position that corporations are expected, and should, behave like any citizen in society. This expectation is also justified on the basis that corresponding responsibilities always accompany power. As Dodd (1932) asserts, â€Å"power over the lives of others tends to create on the part of those most worthy to exercise it a sense of responsibility.† Moreover, the increasing power of organisations has resulted in a societal expectation that corporations act proactively and at the same time, carry out a leadership role in order to provide solutions to problems that the world faces (CSR Survey, 2003). This means that given that organisations frequently have more resources than governments, they should give something back to the society. In the same manner, they are also called to allocate and offer some of their resources to carry out good works and help the less fortunate sectors of society. Overall, this CSR goal is justified as follows: initially, a societal need is identified. For instance, areas such as education, healthcare, low-income housing or the arts may require funding that cannot be generated privately or that government is unable to provide to enable these institutions to continue making goods or services available or even to exist. Second, corporations are identified as capable of filling the gap by providing either funds or infrastructure to address the need. In other words, an appeal to organisations is made because they frequently have the capacity, in accordance with their size and reach, to act as agents of â€Å"social progress† (Kahn, 1997). As repeatedly mentioned earlier, corporate social responsibility has been required of companies that have both, actual or perceived power and influence. This is why multinational corporations that operate parts of the globe where people fear the effects and consequences of Globalisation are expected to perform such duties. This, according to Zinkin (2004) is usually brought about by the fact that these corporations are usually seen as enemies rather than friends. Thus, to regain the trust and confidence of the people, the company must be able to make their social responsibility known as this is said to give them legitimacy to operate in a given country (Zinkins, 2004). 2.2 Literature Review In order to gain a better understanding of the concepts and principles of CSR, the review of literature is divided into the following sections: 1. Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions and History, 2. Corporate Social Responsibility and the UK Food Retail Industry, and 3. Summary 2.2.1 Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions and History Globalisation, the increasing influence of companies including small and medium enterprises, a change in the position and opinion of governments, and a paradigm shift in working with and appreciating the importance of building solid relations with stakeholders- are all factors that have contributed to changing the dynamics of the relationship between businesses and society. Businesses have always been mindful of their responsibilities towards society. The concept of companies sharing their resources and influence with other groups has been repeatedly spoken about for centuries (Bowe, 1953). Nowadays, companies have become more aware and mindful of their responsibilities, roles and rights towards the society. They are seen to have implemented activities, practices and guidelines in order to fulfill their legal, ethical, social and environmental responsibilities to stakeholders, which include shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers and the environment and society in general. These actions have been given many terms, including: (1) Corporate Responsibility or CR, (2) Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility or CSER, (3) Corporate Citizenship, (4) Corporate Accountability, and lastly, (5) Socially Responsible Business (SRB) (Raynard Forstater, 2002). However, the most famous terminology would have to be Corporate Social Responsibility or CSR. CSR first began to be written about by academics in the 20th century. The term Corporate Social Responsibility and the modern view on CSR are largely attributed to Howard Bowen, who is considered by many scholars, especially Carroll, as the father of CSR. Bowen conceived CSR as an integral part of a larger vision of a better American society with a robust and socially responsible business sector. Before Bowen wrote his book in 1953, CSR was not a generally accepted practice among businesses in the United States. Carroll (1991) writes that in the early years, businesses believed that their only obligation was to their shareholders and their only function was the quest of financial improvement in order to provide the greatest financial return to their shareholders. The errors of this way of thinking soon became apparent. For one, businesses still had to work within laws set down by governments. In the 1960s, groups advocating social issues pushed for a more extensive concept of responsibilities for businesses. In the 1970s, various organisations in charge of the social issues pushed by the activist groups were created in the U.S. Some of these organisations were the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). These governmental organisations allowed the establishment of national public policy that now acknowledged the legality of environmen tal issues. The new policies forced businesses to re-examine their own strategies and to learn how to develop a balance between making a profit and the legal and ethical responsibilities placed on them by a widening range of stakeholders. For Bowen (1953), businesses become prominent in society because society needs the products and services provided by these companies. This grants businesses vital decision-making power in the way they affect the lives of many people. Therefore, for a balanced business-society relationship to continue, Bowen (1953) asks what responsibilities society can reasonably expect businessmen to assume. The answer to this question, Bowen states, is corporate social responsibility. He defines CSR as a social obligation that necessitates businessmen to engage in policies, formulate decisions, and implement actions that are considered desirable when connected with the objectives and values of society. He took a broad view when defining what business responsibilities include—responsiveness, stewardship, social audit, corporate citizenship and rudimentary stakeholder theory. Bowens concept of a mutual relationship between business and society is echoed by Porter and Kramer (2006), who point out that the value of CSR lies in the values companies share with societies they exist in. Businesses operate in social contexts and societies need the products and services that businesses provide, thus there is a mutual need for each entity. CSR, therefore, makes it possible to promote a collaborative relationship between business and society. Many have tried to create a definition of corporate social responsibility that encompasses its functions and the range of responsibilities it entails. One of the most comprehensive is that of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2007), which defines CSR as the long-lasting commitment that businesses create which compels them to behave in an ethical manner and to add to the development of the economy while helping improve the quality of life of their employees and their families in addition to the lives of those in the local communities and society in general. This definition is specific enough to imply the holistic and philanthropic maxim of CSR. It is also broad enough to include activities or programs that companies engage in that do not directly yield income but bring visible and long-term benefits to both the companies and the recipients of the programs and activities such as youth and partner communities. With this definition programs such as scholarships and funds for research, advocacy programs for the environment, and livelihood programs can be considered as CSR. One of the earliest authors on CSR, Carroll (1979) was the first to propose the four categories of ordered layers of CSR—economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary—when he wrote that the social responsibility of businesses includes the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society puts upon enterprises. Aupperle, Carroll, and Hatfield (1985) further defined these categories into: * Economic responsibilities showcase the principle that businesses have the primary responsibility to generate products and profits and fulfill the desires of their customers; * Legal responsibilities highlight the issue that economic responsibilities must be performed within the restriction of rules and regulations as mandated by the laws of the land; * Ethical responsibilities takes into consideration the codes, norms, and values that are not written into laws but are still followed implicitly by society; these responsibilities rise above the complexities of written laws and encompass activities that are vigorously carried out without any clear and defined statements made about them; * Discretionary or philanthropic responsibilities reflect the voluntary nature of actions that are not easy to establish and assess, but are still expected by society. These categories are still widely cited and frequently reproduced in management and CSR journals by researchers and authors on CSR. The reason for its lasting acknowledgement may be the simplicity of the model. Carrolls (1979) categories are logical and easy to understand. The author himself writes that these categories are merely guidelines or reminders that the motives or actions of businesses can be generally classified into any of the categories he presented. The arrangement and relative influence of each category was intended to imply the basic role each had in the progression of significance. When it first came out, Carrolls model reflected a point of view that was simultaneously retrospective and developmental. It was based on the assertion that historically businesses first emphasised only the economic aspects of their trade. The legal aspect came next, and the ethical and discretionary were only emphasised in recent years. Juholin (2004) suggests that companies practice corporate social responsibility (CSR) because of long-term profits that CSR brings to companies. Other reasons may also include the commitment of top management to the moral and ethical standards promoted by CSR, competitiveness of the market today, and the visionary skills of many business leaders that allows them to anticipate the needs of the future. Porter and Kramer (2006) agree that CSR provides long-term profits. The authors note that companies should practice CSR and integrate it in their core strategic plans to ensure long-term prosperity. This is because socially responsible activities can return goodwill for companies. On the other hand, activities that harm the environment or result in any disadvantage to stakeholders can only result in bad karma in the form of bad financial operation, low brand positioning, and, worse, a rift in the relationship between companies and their consumers and suppliers and even expensive litigations. Porter and Kramer (2006) write that corporations are not obligated to solve the problems of the world. They do not have resources to do this. But, a company that is well managed can have a greater impact than any other organisation or charity group when they do something good for society. CSR does not merely imply profitability for companies. Its results go beyond the costs or constraint of altruistic actions. CSR can be a source of market opportunity, improvement, and an edge over the competition (Porter Kramer, 2006). It also does not mean engaging in activities for the sake of doing what is socially required and expected of these companies based on legal and social laws, especially those on environmental issues. CSR implies taking action to go beyond these laws to minimize any harm towards and maximize benefits for all stakeholders in order to fulfill what society desires (Raynard Forstater, 2002). Warhurst (2001) identifies three major elements of CSR—product use, business practice, and distribution of profits. Product use entails the positive involvement of products from businesses that assist in the promotion of welfare and better quality of life for members of society. Business practice entails business governance that observes the rules and regulations and presents a high level of thrust towards welfare of the natural environment and equity for all generations and species. Distribution of profits entails equal distribution of profits across a varied range of sectors of society, with emphasis on local communities. Bowen (1953) also notes that CSR should not be seen as a primary solution to the many problems of society. CSR can only do so much, and it should only be seen by companies and society as a set of guidelines for businesses in the way they perform and carry on their operations within the context of a larger society and the many issues that abound within the social milieu that they operate in. A key concept of CSR is the idea of stakeholders. Stakeholders are all groups or individuals who have an impact on or are affected by the attainment of any organisations goals (Freeman, 1984). It can be said that stakeholders are any entity who have a big â€Å"stake† in what businesses do. The concept of stakeholders therefore goes beyond the shareholders, employees, and clients or customers of a company. It includes communities, public interest groups, social activist groups, environmental groups, and the media which, according to Freeman, author of the Stakeholder Theory, businesses are accountable to. Other researchers (Marcus, 1996; Munilla Miles, 2005) list specific stakeholders as: owners; customers; employees; local, regional and national communities; competitors; suppliers; social activists; public at large; creditors; non-government organisations (NGOs); and even the natural environment, which, although unable to state its opinions, has become a major stakeholder today because of the many laws promulgated to care for the Earth in a sustainable way. Hopkins (2003) writes that CSR primarily deals with ensuring that businesses treat stakeholders in an ethical or responsible way which means treating them in a manner considered suitable by members of any civilized society. The social context of this definition includes economic responsibility. Stakeholders can be both within businesses and outside it. This signifies the natural environment as a stakeholder. In a broader sense, the objective of social responsibility is to establish better and higher standards of living while maintaining the capability of businesses to make a profit. These two components of the objective of social responsibility are both done for the stakeholders within and outside companies. According to Freeman (1984) for successful transactions with stakeholders, businesses must accept the authority and procedures of various stakeholders. Stakeholders will thus have the freedom to communicate their concerns. Furthermore, to manage and develop a strong relationship with stakeholders, businesses must understand their concerns and develop programs that will address these concerns. Stakeholders have various ways to ensure that businesses fulfill societys expectations. Some may opt to organize rallies, some may opt for more peaceful negotiations, some may engage in joint activities such as seminars or tree-planting sessions or other awareness raising activities, and some may use the media to further disseminate their issues. For example, the environmental group Greenpeace printed leaflets and wrote articles against genetically modified food, which led some food manufacturing corporations to either stop production of certain products or to develop new, healthier items. Freeman (1984) points out that the term â€Å"stakeholder† first appeared in management literature in a 1963 international memorandum published by the Stanford Research Institute. The term then was strictly yet broadly defined as the peoples or groups who give their support to companies and without whom businesses would stop to surviving. The main idea in this initial context already shows a measure of the importance of stakeholders. In a way, this definition states that without the support of stakeholders, businesses would not be able to survive. Of course, the limitation of this definition lies in the fact that stakeholders here may mean only the groups that are influential for companies such as the shareholders or government groups or investors. Each business activity has a different group of stakeholders. This is because each individual in society is interested in and promotes a varied and widely different range of concerns (Freeman, 1984). Some are more interested in environmental issues, while others advocate employment benefits, and still others fight for education. One way to determine which stakeholder is relevant to which particular aspect of business is through the generation of a generic stakeholder map, which is a diagram of the various groups relevant to the whole organisation broken down into levels and subdivisions in order to divide big groups into small groups based on specific interests. Some experts, however, think that this mapping procedure does not encapsulate the complex linkages between businesses and the various individuals and groups in society. An approach of corporate social responsibility that centers on stakeholders emphasizes the strategic and effective management of relationships and promotion of what Freeman and McVea (2001) call shared interests. The stakeholder model also puts some emphasis on persuading businesses to rebuild or restore relationships with groups or organisations that they have been at odds with. A good stakeholder management program also involves open communication, negotiation, management, and motivation. The end result of all of these actions leads to the establishment of an attitude of partnership, mutual association and interdependence between businesses and stakeholders. All of these activities are held together by the values and ethical standards that businesses stand for. Freeman and McVea (2001) further emphasise that good stakeholder management promotes a business own company values. CSR does not mean catering to the interests of stakeholders while abandoning all other aspects of business. Rather it entails in-depth deliberations taking into account all factors of social expectations. A well-developed stakeholder management program also allows businesses to create approaches that can serve stakeholders even in the long run. Although some individuals may not be happy with short-term decisions and feel that their causes need more attention, a good stakeholder management program takes all things into considerations so that all stakeholders, not just a chosen few, continue to be firm supporters of businesses. Besides understanding stakeholders concerns, businesses must also look at the other components of CSR to determine the entire range of responsibilities that stakeholders expect them to embrace. When discussing and identifying these components of CSR, scholars and authors have been turning to the CSR pyramid presented by Carroll (1991). The CSR pyramid is arranged to follow the levels of Carrolls (1979) earlier work of the four categories of CSR. The arrangement is in accordance with the degrees of social expectations that have been connected with each category. It has been used to assess businesses performance in terms of quantity, quality, effectiveness, and efficiency in their implementation of CSR initiatives. Table 2.2.1 The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Be a Good Corporate Citizen Philanthropic Responsibility Contribute Resources to the community; Improve Quality of Life Be Ethical Ethical Responsibility Obligation to do what is right, just and fair; Avoid Harm Obey the Law Legal Responsibility Law is Societys codification of right and wrong; Play the Rules of the game Be Profitable Economic Responsibility The Foundation on which all the others rest (Source : Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility (Carroll, 1991, p. 39)) Obligations or responsibilities included in the pyramid have always existed in the business world. But the importance of philanthropic and ethical responsibilities has only received attention in recent years. Through this pyramid, Carroll (1991) hoped to show that a good CSR program can be broken down into well-defined components that make up a complete package. It can be seen as a framework for comprehending companies ever-evolving CSR activities. In addition, looking at each component can help leaders to distinguish and understand the various obligations of businesses that are in constant conflict with each other but which are mutually exclusive. Based on the expected activities for each level, economic responsibilities seem to be always in tension with the other responsibilities. Carroll (1991) also included the concept of stakeholders in this model, pointing out that taking their perspective into account would allow businesses to recognize the tension between all levels of the pyramid as realities of any organisation. This perspective can also allow businesses to see the pyramid as a united basis or framework of how firms will implement their decisions, actions, and programs. As can be seen, economic profit forms the foundation of the whole pyramid. Carroll (1991) acknowledges the basic fact that businesses were created historically as economic entities that are primarily concerned with making money and creating profit. Without this component, all other responsibilities become moot. Carroll states that the idea he was proposing was that CSR, to be acknowledged as a legitimate action for businesses, had to deal with the whole range of responsibilities these businesses had to answer for to society. Of course this would have to include the most basic responsibility—economic. The next level shows that businesses are obligated to follow the rules of law—various national and international laws—that socie